Table 2.
Ways in which the studied interventions were effective (p < 0.05).
| Study | Intervention type | Cognitive domains assessed (as stated in individual studies) | Cognitive measures that improved statistically significantly (within and between group differences) | Effect sizes (within and between group differences) | Effectiveness timeframe | Reported adverse outcomes |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| [28] Anderson-Hanley et al. | Cybercycle exergame group | Executive function Visuospatial function Attention Verbal fluency Verbal memory Neuroplasticity |
Between groups:
colour trails, digit span backward, neuroplasticity assessment and Stroop C. Within group: colour trails, digit span backward, neuroplasticity assessment and Stroop C |
Between groups: (ηp2) large effect size: colour trails test, digit span backward and Stroop C. Within group: (d) medium effect size: colour trails, digit span backward, Stroop C, and reduction in risk of clinical progression to mild cognitive impairment |
Cognitive measures: baseline and after intervention (3 months). Neuroplasticity assessment: immediately before and after intervention |
Not reported |
| [29] Eggenberger et al. | Dance exergame | Information processing Shifting attention Inhibition Working memory General cognitive ability |
Between groups:
fNIRS treadmill test: reduced HbO2 at preferred walking speed in the left and right prefrontal cortex (PFC). At preferred and fast walking speed, higher left PFC activity than right. HbO2 levels higher at fast compared to preferred walking speed. Cognitive measures: unclear. Within group: unclear |
Between groups: (r) medium effect sizes: fNIRS treadmill test. Within groups: (r) unclear |
Immediately before and after intervention (8 weeks) | Nil adverse outcomes |
| [30] Esmail et al. | Dance/movement training | Executive function Nonexecutive function Global cognition |
Within group:
N-back test, digit Stroop and dual-task tests |
Within group: (ηp2) large effect size: N-back test, digit Stroop test, and dual-task tests |
Immediately before and after intervention (12 weeks) | Nil adverse outcomes |
| [31] Hars et al. | Music-based multitask exercise classes | General cognition Executive functioning |
Between groups:
sensitivity to interference subtest of the frontal assessment battery. Within group: Mini-Mental State Examination |
Not reported | Immediately before and after intervention (6 months) | Not reported |
| [32] Kitazawa et al. | Net step exercise | Visuospatial function. Level of cognitive decline |
Between groups: Touch-M, accuracy of the order of a process and naming fingers subtests of the touch-panel type dementia assessment scale. Within group: Touch-M total score and naming fingers subtest of the touch-panel type dementia assessment scale |
Not reported | Immediately before and after intervention (2 months) | Not reported |
| [33] Li et al. | Tai Chi Quan exercise | Global cognition |
Between 2 intervention groups and stretching control group:
Montreal cognitive assessment |
Within group:
improvement on Montreal cognitive assessment scores; it is unclear if statistical significance was reached |
Not reported | Immediately before and after intervention (6 months) |
| [34] Monteiro-Junior et al. | Exergame Wii group | Semantic memory Short-term memory Working memory |
Within group:
verbal fluency test |
Within group: (Δ before and after) large effect size: verbal fluency and digit span forward tests. Small effect size: digit span backward test. Between groups (Δ%): large effect size: verbal fluency, digit span forward and backward tests |
Immediately before and after intervention (after 1 session) | Not reported |
| [35] Mortimer et al. | Tai Chi group | Not reported |
Between 2 intervention groups and control group: increased whole brain volume. Within group: category verbal fluency test, auditory verbal learning test (delayed recognition), rail making test part A and B, Mattis dementia rating scale total score and attention, initiation and memory subtests of the Mattis dementia rating scale |
Not reported | Before intervention and at follow-up (40 weeks). 19-20 weeks between conclusion of intervention and follow-up assessment |
Not reported |
| [36] Noice and Noice | Theatre group | Word recall Category fluency Episodic memory Problem solving |
Experiment 1 Between group: means-end problem solving procedure, east Boston memory, verbal fluency, and Word list recall tests. Within group: means-end problem solving procedure. Experiment 2 Between group: means-end problem solving procedure, east Boston memory, verbal fluency and word list recall tests. Within group: means-end problem solving procedure, verbal fluency, and word list recall (immediate) tests |
Experiment 1 Between groups (ηp2): large effect size: means-end problem solving procedure, east Boston memory, verbal fluency, and word list recall tests. Within group (ηp2): medium effect size: means-end problem solving procedure; small effect size: verbal fluency. Experiment 2 Between group (ηp2): large effect size: means-end problem solving procedure, east Boston memory, verbal fluency, and word list recall tests. Within group (ηp2): large effect size: means-end problem solving procedure, verbal fluency, and word list recall (immediate) tests |
Immediately before and after intervention (4 weeks) | Not reported |
| [37] Norouzi et al. | Motor-cognition dual-task group | Working memory |
Between groups:
N-back test. Within group: N-back test |
Large effect size: N-back test, after test and at follow-up. Between groups: unclear ηp2 or d; large effect size: N-back test, after test and at follow-up |
Before intervention, after intervention, and at follow-up (4 weeks), 8 weeks between conclusion of intervention and follow-up assessment |
Not reported |
| [38] Schoene et al. | Exergame group | Combined stepping and executive function Processing speed Executive function Attention Inhibition Visuospatial function |
Between groups:
letter digit test, hand reaction and choice stepping reaction times, mental rotation, and executive subtest of the attentional network test. Within group: difference between low and high adherers: letter digit, alerting subtest of the attentional network test and trail making test B/A |
Not reported | Before and after intervention (16 weeks) | One participant with post-polio syndrome reporting severe leg pain. No other adverse effects reported. |
| [39] Silsupadol et al. | Simultaneous balance and cognitive task group | Not reported |
Between groups:
counting backwards by threes and auditory Stroop tests whilst sitting. Within group: counting backwards by threes and auditory Stroop tests whilst sitting |
Within group: (ηp2) large effect size: counting backwards by threes and auditory Stroop tests. Between groups: (ηp2) large effect size: counting backwards by threes and auditory Stroop tests |
Before and after intervention (4 weeks) | Not reported |
| [40] Sungkarat et al. | Tai Chi group | Episodic memory Visuospatial function Executive function Hand reaction time |
Between group:
logical memory-delayed recall subtest of the Wechsler memory scale, block design, trail making test B-A and hand reaction time. Within group: not reported |
Not reported | Before and after intervention (15 weeks) | No adverse effects |
| [41] Tsang et al. | Qigong exercise group | Global cognition |
Between groups:
acute and mid intervention effects; thinking operations subtest of the LOTCA-G. Within group: not reported |
Between groups: (ηp2) small effect size: acute affects; orientation, visuomotor organisation, thinking operations, memory and attention subtests of the LOTCA-G |
Acute effects: baseline to after intervention (12 weeks). Mid-intervention effects: baseline to mid intervention (6 weeks). Maintenance effects: post- to follow-up assessment (20 weeks) |
No adverse events |
The within group data relates to the SDT group only.