Skip to main content
. Author manuscript; available in PMC: 2023 Nov 1.
Published in final edited form as: Glob Public Health. 2021 Oct 6;17(11):2779–2791. doi: 10.1080/17441692.2021.1986735

Table 2.

Associations between maternal adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) and (A) maternal psychosocial and HIV-related outcomes in logistic regression models, and offspring development in (B) logistic and (C) linear regression models.

(A) Maternal psychosocial and HIV-related outcomes (n=353) Unadjusted OR [95% CI]1 P-value Adjusted OR
[95% CI]2
P-value
Psychosocial outcomes
Elevated depressive symptoms during the past week 1.68 [1.35, 2.11] <0.001 1.68 [1.33, 2.12] <0.001
Hazardous alcohol use during the past 12 months 1.21 [1.04, 1.40] 0.012 1.20 [1.03, 1.40] 0.019
Intimate partner violence during the past 12 months 1.42 [1.15, 1.76] 0.001 1.40 [1.12, 1.75] 0.003
 
HIV-related outcomes
Missed antiretroviral therapy dose(s) on ≥1 day during the past 30 days 1.24 [1.09, 1.41] 0.001 1.25 [1.10, 1.43] 0.001
HIV viral load ≥50 copies/mL 1.11 [0.98, 1.25] 0.089 1.11 [0.98, 1.26] 0.086
 
(B) Offspring developmental delay in logistic regression models (n=255) Unadjusted OR [95% CI] P-value Adjusted OR
[95% CI]
P-value
Communication delay 0.84 [0.54, 1.29] 0.427 0.84 [0.55, 1.30] 0.443
Gross motor delay 0.75 [0.54, 1.06] 0.101 0.77 [0.57, 1.05] 0.099
Fine motor delay 1.01 [0.85, 1.19] 0.952 1.01 [0.85, 1.19] 0.943
Problem solving delay 1.05 [0.88, 1.25] 0.608 1.08 [0.89, 1.31] 0.419
Personal-social delay 0.80 [0.57, 1.12] 0.195 0.82 [0.59, 1.13] 0.226
Socioemotional risk 1.47 [1.12, 1.92] 0.005 1.57 [1.15, 2.14] 0.004
 
(C) Offspring development in linear regression models (n=255)4 Unadjusted β
[95% CI]3 		P-value Adjusted β
[95% CI]
P-value
Communication score −0.02 [−0.58, 0.53] 0.934 −0.05 [−0.60, 0.51] 0.869
Gross motor score 0.29 [−0.27, 0.85] 0.308 0.31 [−0.25, 0.87] 0.276
Fine motor score 0.24 [−0.61, 1.08] 0.584 0.16 [−0.68, 1.00] 0.710
Problem solving score −0.33 [−1.09, 0.44] 0.400 −0.46 [−1.18, 0.26] 0.213
Personal-social score 0.04 [−0.52, 0.60] 0.881 0.05 [−0.50, 0.59] 0.864
Socioemotional score 1.52 [−0.02, 3.05] 0.052 1.57 [0.04, 3.10] 0.044
1

OR: odds ratio for each additional ACE category reported; 95% CI: 95% confidence interval;

2

Psychosocial models adjusted for maternal age, socioeconomic status and relationship status; HIV-related models additionally adjusted for time since antiretroviral therapy initiation; offspring development models adjusted for maternal age, socioeconomic status, infant gender and infant age;

3

β: regression coefficient;

4

Higher scores indicate better development in all domains except socioemotional, where higher scores indicate higher levels of maladaptive development.