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. 2022 Mar 15;13(3):150–160. doi: 10.4239/wjd.v13.i3.150

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©The Author(s) 2022. Published by Baishideng Publishing Group Inc. All rights reserved.

This article is an open-access article that was selected by an in-house editor and fully peer-reviewed by external reviewers. It is distributed in accordance with the Creative Commons Attribution NonCommercial (CC BY-NC 4.0) license, which permits others to distribute, remix, adapt, build upon this work non-commercially, and license their derivative works on different terms, provided the original work is properly cited and the use is non-commercial. See: https://creativecommons.org/Licenses/by-nc/4.0/

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Implication of increased short-chain fatty acids, decreased reactive oxygen species, and increased D-amino acids derived from gut in the renal protection and/or exacerbation against the progression of diabetic nephropathy. Arrowheads mean stimulation and/or progression, whereas hammerhead represents inhibition. Note that some critical pathways including hormonal regulation have been omitted for clarity. SCFAs: Short-chain fatty acids; ROS: Reactive oxygen species; DN: Diabetic nephropathy.