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. 2022 Apr 6;12:5832. doi: 10.1038/s41598-022-09680-1

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© The Author(s) 2022

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

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Reconstructed total internal reflection and input–output propagation of the conventional optical element waveguide. The chief ray angle is illustrated. (a) Overall input–output ray propagation. (b–d) Comparisons of 10°, 0°, and − 10° propagation (e) Designed FoVs for different waveguide glass refractive indices, versus angle in waveguide. The dashed vertical lines show the total internal reflection bounds for the two corresponding refractive indices. (f) Ray tracing of MOE for 646 nm showing FoV of 55°.