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. 2022 Apr 6;14:94. doi: 10.1007/s40820-022-00844-2

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© The Author(s) 2022

Open AccessThis article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

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Fig. 14 — a Transmission and b, c scanning electron micrographs of various air cathode catalyst structures. a Pt single atoms on a graphdiyne substrate [208].

Copyright 2018, John Wiley and Sons. b porous nitrogen-doped carbon fibre [204]. Copyright 2013, Elsevier. c Co₃O₄ nanowire core and NiFe-layered double hydroxide shell (LDH) structures. Electrochemical performance of the Co3O4@NiFe LDH catalyst, showing d high cycle stability but e the characteristically low round trip efficiency caused by the large potential gap between the ORR and OER [209]. Copyright 2019, American Chemical Society. f Schematic of a typical zinc–air prismatic cell, showing a planar electrode configuration [210]. Copyright, Energizer Battery Manufacturing. g Schematic of a typical cylindrical LIB, showing a coiled electrode configuration [211]. Copyright 2013, Macrothink Institute. The coiled electrodes offer substantially a larger surface area in the same volume