Table 1.

The effects of hyperglycemia on the various types of immune cells.

Immune Cell Type	Effects of Glucose on the Cell Type
Monocytes	Il-6 and TNF- α levels are increased in human-isolated monocytes (57). Superoxide anion production is increased (58)
Neutrophils	Inhibits migration (58, 59), phagocytosis, superoxide production and microbial killing, and induces apoptosis (58)
Lymphocytes (B cells)	Glycosylation of proteins prevents complement fixation and subsequent opsonization with immunoglobulins (58)
Macrophages	Superoxide anion production is increased (59)
Lymphocytes (T cells)	Attenuated CD28 and CD3 signaling leads to diminished response in activated T cells. Activity and counts of regulatory T cells are reduced (59)
Natural Killer Cells	Attenuated function and cell count (59)