Table 1.
Study designs and descriptive data of the primary studies included in the meta-analysis.
| References | Country | N | Groups (n, Mage) | No. of sessions | Duration (wks) | Follow-up (wks) | Cognitive intervention | Physical intervention | Combinatory mode | Setting | Control activities/other components | Outcome measures | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Description | min/wk | Trained functions | Description | min/wk | Trained functions | Aerobic intensity | |||||||||||
| Adcock et al. (2020) | Switzerland | 31 | EI-CI (15, 77) PC (16, 70.9) |
48 | 16 | - | Square stepping, 3 d/wk |
95 | EF, attention | Tai Chi-inspired movements and dancing 3 d/wk | 105 | Strength, balance, fitness | Low | Simultaneous | Individual | - | Cognitive: EF, PS, memory Physical: balance (gait), fitness |
| Anderson-Hanley et al. (2012) | USA | 63 | EI-CI (30, 76.1) EI (33, 81.7) |
36 | 12 | - | Exergames 3 d/wk, 2 months | 135 | Not clear | Stationary bicycle riding at 60% HRmax 3 d/wk for 3 months | 135 | Fitness | Moderate | Simultaneous | Individual | - | Cognitive: EF, global cognition, attention, language, memory |
| Andrieu et al. (2017) | France | 722 | EI-CI (356, 75) PC (366, 75.1) |
745 | 144 | - | Multicomponent exercises 1.5 d/wk during the first 2 months, 1 d/every 3rd mo. for the rest of the trial. |
90 | ES, PS, memory | Personalized home-based exercise program 5 d/wk | 150 | Fitness, balance, strength | Low | Separate | Mixed | - | Cognitive: global cognition, memory, PS language, attention, EF Physical: fitness |
| Bamidis et al. (2015) | Greece | 90 | EI-CI (69, n/a) PC (21, n/a) |
37 CI: 14, EI:23 | 9 | - | Computerized cognitive training (Posit Science), 3 d/wk | 180 | EF, memory | Exergames (FitForAll for Wii) at 55–85% HRmax, 2.3 d/wk | 120 | Fitness, balance, strength | Moderate | Not clear | Group | - | Cognitive: composite score of EF and memory |
| Barban et al. (2017) | Italy, Greece, Spain, Serbia | 481 | EI-CI (121, 74.5) EI (119,75.5) CI (118, 74.1) CC (123, 76) |
24 | 12 | 12 | Computerized cognitive training 2 d/wk | EI-CI:60 CI:120 |
EF, memory | Supervised structured exercise program with i-walker. 2 d/wk | EI-CI:60 EI:120 | Balance, fitness | Low | Sequential | Mixed | CC: entering data into computer | Cognitive: memory |
| Desjardins-Crépeau et al. (2016) | Canada | 76 | EI-CI (22, 72.7) EI-CC (16, 70.9) EC-CI (20, 73.2) EC-CC(18, 72.5) |
36 | 12 | - | Computer tasks 1 d/wk | 60 | EF, attention | Supervised structured exercise program and treadmill walking 2 d/wk | 120 | Fitness, strength | Moderate | Sequential | Group | EC: Stretching, toning CC: Computer lessons |
Cognitive: ES, memory, PS Physical: fitness, balance, strength |
| Eggenberger et al. (2015) | Switzerland | 47 | EI-CI (22, 78.5) EI (25, 80.8) DANCE not incl. |
52 | 26 | 24 | Computer tasks 2 d/wk | 120 | Memory | Structured exercise program and treadmill walking 2 d/wk | 120 | Fitness, strength, balance | Moderate | Simultaneous | Mixed | - | Cognitive: memory, attention, EF, PS |
| Fabre et al. (2002) | France | 32 | EI-CI (8, 64.9) CI (8, 67.5) EI (8, 65.4) AC (8, 65.7) |
24 | 8 | - | Multicomponent exercises 1 d/wk | 90 | Memory, attention, language | Supervised outdoor interval training at ventilatory threshold 2 d/wk | 120 | Fitness | Moderate | Separate | Group | AC: leisure activities |
Cognitive: memory Physical: fitness |
| Gill et al. (2016) | Canada | 44 | EI-CI (23, 72.6) EI (21, 74.5) |
78 | 26 | - | Verbal exercises 3 d/wk | 45 | EF, language | Structured aerobic exercise at 70–85% HRmax and beginner-level square stepping 3 d/wk | 120 | Fitness | Moderate | Simultaneous | Mixed | - | Cognitive: EF, PS, memory, language |
| Gschwind et al. (2015) | Spain, Germany, Australia | 153 | EI-CI (78, 74.7) PC (75, 74.7) |
42 | 16 | - | Computerized exercises 2.5 d/wk | 100 | EF, attention | Individualized training protocol embedded in home-based exergames 2.5 d/wk | 112 | Strength, balance | None | Simultaneous | Individual | - | Cognitive: EF, PS, attention. Physical: balance, fitness, strength |
| Hiyamizu et al. (2012) | Japan | 36 | EI-CI (17, 72.9) EI (19, 71.2) |
24 | 12 | - | Verbal exercises 2 d/wk | 120 | EF, attention, language | Supervised structured exercise program 2 d/wk | 120 | Strength, balance | None | Simultaneous | Group | - | Cognitive: EF, PS Physical: balance, strength |
| Htut et al. (2018) | Myanmar | 42 | EI-CI (21, 75.8) PC (21, 76) |
24 | 8 | - | Exergames 3 d/wk | 90 | PS, attention | Exergames 3 d/wk | 90 | Balance, fitness | Low | Simultaneous | Individual | - | Cognitive: global cognition Physical: balance, strength |
| Jardim et al. (2021) | Brazil | 72 | EI-CI (41, 67.4) PC (31, 67.9) EI + CI not incl. | 24 | 12 | - | Verbal exercises, psychomotor tasks 2 d/wk | 150 | EF, memory, attention, language | Supervised structured exercise program at 60–70% HRmax 2 d/wk | 150 | Fitness, balance, strength | Moderate | Simultaneous | Group | - | Cognitive: memory, attention Physical: fitness, balance, strength |
| Jehu et al. (2017) | Canada | 41 | EI-CI (14, 68.7) EI (15, 70.2) PC (12, 66.3) | 36 | 12 | 12 | Verbal exercises 3 d/wk | 180 | EF, language | Supervised structured exercise program 3 d/wk | 180 | Balance | None | Simultaneous | Individual | - | Cognitive: EF Physical: balance |
| Joubert and Chainay (2019) | France | 48 | EI-CI (16, 69.4) PC (16, 69.8) CI (16, 69.5) | 16 | 8 | 4 | Home-based computerized cognitive training (HAPPY neuron Professional) EI-CI: 1 d/wk CI: 2 d/wk | EI-CI:60 CI:120 |
EF | Supervised treadmill walking 1 d/wk | 60 | Fitness | Moderate | Separate | Individual | - | Cognitive: EF, language |
| Kitazawa et al. (2015) | Japan | 60 | EI-CI (30, 76.8) PC (30, 75.5) | 8 | 8 | - | Square stepping 1 d/wk | 60 | Memory | Supervised square stepping 1 d/wk | 60 | Fitness, balance | Low | Simultaneous | Group | - | Cognitive: global cognition, memory Physical: balance |
| Laatar et al. (2018) | Tunisia | 24 | EI-CI (12, 66.3) EI (12, 67, 45) | 72 | 24 | 12 | Verbal exercises, psychomotor tasks 3 d/wk | 180 | EF, memory, attention | Supervised structured exercise program 3 d/wk | 180 | Strength, balance | None | Simultaneous | Group | - | Cognitive: PS Physical: fitness, balance (gait), strength |
| Legault et al. (2011) | USA | 67 | EI-CI (18, 75.4) CI (16, 76.0) EI (16, 77.5) AC (17, 76.9) | 56 | 16 | - | Center-based computer tasks 1.5 d/wk | 100 | Memory | Center-based and home-based exercises including walking or stationary cycling 2 d/wk | 150 | Fitness | Moderate | Separate | Mixed | AC: Health education | Cognitive: EF, memory |
| Linde and Alfermann (2014) | Germany | 55 | EI-CI (16, 65.6) EI (15, 68.3) CI (11, 67.3) PC (13, 66.6) | 32 | 16 | 12 | Multicomponent exercises 1 d/wk | 30 | EF, PS, memory, attention | Supervised structured exercise program at 40% to 70% HRmax. 2 d/wk | 120 | Fitness, strength | Moderate | Sequential | Group | - | Cognitive: EF, memory, attention, PS Physical: fitness |
| Maillot et al. (2012) | France | 30 | EI-CI (15, 73.5) PC (15, 73.5) | 24 | 12 | - | Exergames 2 d/wk | 120 | Not clear | Wii exergames 2 d/wk | 120 | Fitness, balance | Not clear | Simultaneous | Not clear | - | Cognitive: EF, PS Physical: fitness, strength |
| Marmeleira et al. (2009) | Portugal | 32 | EI-CI (16, 68.4) PC (16, 68.2) | 36 | 12 | - | Psychomotor tasks 3 d/wk | 180 | EF, PS, attention | Psychomotor responses to cognitive demands (walking, catching balls, etc.) 3 d/wk | 180 | Fitness | Low | Simultaneous | Group | - | Cognitive: attention, EF, PS Physical: fitness, balance |
| McDaniel et al. (2014) | USA | 79 | EI-CI (19, 6) EI-CC (23, 7) CI-EC (18, 6) CC-EC(19, 6) | 96 | 24 (CI: 2 EI: 6) | - | Multicomponent exercises 3 d/wk | 180 | EF, memory, attention | Supervised treadmill walking or stationary cycling at 50% to 85% HRmax. 3 d/wk | 180 | Fitness | Moderate | Sequential | Group | EC: Flexibility CC: Health education |
Cognitive: attention, memory Physical: VO2peak |
| Morita et al. (2018) | Japan | 19 | EI-CI (8, 75) PC (11, 71.9) | 96 | 96 | - | Verbal exercises, psychomotor tasks 1 d/wk | 60 | EF, memory, language | Supervised structured exercise program 1 d/wk | 60 | Fitness, strength | Low | Simultaneous | Group | - | Cognitive: global cognition Physical: strength, fitness, balance |
| Ng et al. (2018) | Singapore | 197 | EI-CI (49, 70.4) EI (48, 70.2) CI (50, 69.7) AC (50, 70.2) | 30 | 24 | 24 | Multicomponent exercises 120 min, 1 d/wk for 12 weeks plus 6 booster sessions | 120 | EF, PS, attention, memory, language | Structured exercise program center-based:2 d/wk for 12 weeks; 12 wk. home-based sessions; number not clear. | 180 | Strength, balance | None | Separate | Mixed | AC: Leisure activities | Cognitive: global cognition, memory, language, attention, EF |
| Ngandu et al. (2015) | Finland | 1,190 | EI-CI (591, 69.5) AC (599, 69.2) | 538 | 96 | - | 10 group-based sessions on memory and reasoning strategies, and 2 x 6 months 72 (10–15 min, 3 d/wk) home-based, computerized training. | 37 | EF, PS, memory, attention | Center-based supervised, structured, and individualized exercise program 3–5 d/wk | not clear | Fitness, strength | Not clear | Separate | Mixed | AC: Health education | Cognitive: global cognition, EF, PS, memory |
| Nilsson et al. (2020) | Sweden | 73 | EI-CI (25, 70.3) CI (21, 70.9) EI (27, 70.3) | 30 | 12 | - | Computerized working memory training 2.5 d/wk | 75 | EF | Supervised interval training on stationary bikes at 65–75% HRmax. 2.5 d/wk | 90 | Fitness | Moderate | Sequential | Group | - | Cognitive: EF, PS, memory, language |
| Nishiguchi et al. (2015) | Japan | 48 | EI-CI (24, 7) PC (24, 73.5) | 12 | 12 | - | Verbal exercises, psychomotor 1 d/wk | 60 | EF, language | Group classes with music soundtrack 1 d/wk | 90 | Fitness, strength | Not clear | Simultaneous | Group | - | Cognitive: global cognition, memory, EF Physical: fitness, balance, strength |
| Nocera et al. (2020) | USA | 37 | EI-CI (13, 72.1) EI (12, 69.5) CI-EC (12, 7) | 36 | 12 | - | Computerized cognitive training (Mindfit) 3 d/wk | 60 | EF and “other processes” | Supervised stationary bicycle riding at 50 to 75% HRmax. 3 d/wk | 135 | Fitness | Moderate | Sequential | Group | EC: Stretching | Cognitive: EF, memory, language, PS Physical: fitness, balance (gait) |
| Norouzi et al. (2019) | Iran | 40 | EI-CI (20, 68.5) AC (20, 68.1) EC not incl. | 12 | 4 | 12 | Verbal and visual tasks 3 d/wk | 210 | EF, memory | Supervised strength training using an isokinetic exercise device. 3 d/wk | 210 | Strength | None | Simultaneous | Group | AC: group discussions | Cognitive: EF, memory Physical: strength |
| Oswald et al. (2006) | Germany | 196 | EI-CI (24, 79.5) EI (29, 79.5) CI (46, 79.5) PC (97, 79.5) | 30 | 48 | 48 | Multicomponent exercises 1 d/wk | 45 | Memory, attention, PS | Supervised exercise program including gymnastics, dance, games, tennis skills, etc. 1 d/wk | 45 | Balance, fitness | Low | Sequential | Group | - | Cognitive: composite score from multiple test-domains Physical: composite score from multiple test-domains |
| Phirom et al. (2020) | Thailand | 39 | EI-CI (19, 70.2) PC (20, 69.4) | 36 | 12 | - | Exergames 3 d/wk | 180 | EF, memory, attention | Center-based exergames (Xbox) 3 d/wk | 180 | Fitness, balance | Low | Simultaneous | Group |
Cognitive: global cognition Physical: balance, strength |
|
| Pieramico et al. (2012) | Italy | 30 | EI-CI (15, 67.5) PC (15, 67.5) | 144 | 24 | - | Home-based cognitive activities 5 d/wk, and group activities 120 min, twice a month | 300 | Not clear | Structured home-based walking and dancing 2 d/wk | 120 | Fitness | Low | Separate | Mixed | - | Cognitive: global cognition, EF, memory, language, PS |
| Rahe et al. (2015a) | Germany | 45 | EI-CI (25, 68.4) CI (20, 67.6) | 14 | 7 | - | Multicomponent exercises 2 d/wk | 140 | Memory, EF, attention | Group classes and home exercises (walking, taking stairs) 2 d/wk | 40 | Fitness, balance, strength | Low | Sequential | Group | - | Cognitive: global cognition, memory, EF, language, attention Physical: fitness, strength |
| Rahe et al. (2015b) | Germany | 30 | EI-CI (15, 67.1) CI (15, 66.3) | 13 | 6.5 | 48 | Multicomponent exercises 2 d/wk | 190 | Memory, EF, attention | Supervised structured exercise program 2 d/wk | 40 | Fitness, balance, strength | Low | Sequential | Group | - | Cognitive: global cognition, EF, language, attention |
| Raichlen et al. (2020) | USA | 51 | EI-CI (12, 67.7) EI (17, 68.1) CI (10, 66.4) AC (12, 69.3) | 36 | 12 | - | Computerized cognitive training 3 d/wk | 90 | EF, PS, memory, | Supervised stationary bicycle riding at 40–80% HRmax 3 d/wk | 90 | Fitness | Moderate | Simultaneous | Group | AC: watching videos | Cognitive: EF Physical: balance (gait) |
| Romera-Liebana et al. (2018) | Spain | 352 | EI-CI (176, 77.2) PC (176, 77.4) | 24 | 12 | 18 | Multicomponent memory and verbal training 2 d/wk | 180 (6 wks) | Memory, language | Supervised structured exercise program 2 d/wk | 120 (6 wks) | Fitness, balance, strength | Not clear | Separate | Group | Nutritional supplement | Cognitive: memory, language Physical: fitness, balance, strength |
| Salazar-González et al. (2015) | Mexico | 286 | EI-CI (143, 71) PC (143, 74) | 36 | 12 | - | Verbal exercises, psychomotor tasks 3 d/wk | 60 | EF | Supervised structured exercise program 3 d/wk | 180 | Fitness, balance, strength | Low | Simultaneous | Group | - | Cognitive: EF Physical: Balance (gait) |
| Schoene et al. (2013) | Australia | 32 | EI-CI (15, 77.5) PC (17, 78.4) | 22 | 8 | - | Home-based exergame (Stepmania) 1.5 d/wk | 30 | EF | Home-based exergames involving step exercises 1.5 d/wk | 30 | Fitness | Low | Simultaneous | Individual | - | Cognitive: PS, EF Physical: balance (+postural stability), strength |
| Schoene et al. (2015) | Australia | 81 | EI-CI (39, 82.7) PC (42, 81) | 48 | 16 | - | Home-based exergames (Stepmania, Trail-Stepping, Stepper, Tetris), 3 d/wk | 60 | EF, PS, attention | Home-based exergames involving step exercises 3 d/wk | 60 | Fitness | Low | Simultaneous | Individual | - | Cognitive: EF, PS |
| Shah et al. (2014) | Australia | 172 | EI-CI (44, 67.2) EI (42, 67.4) CI (51, 66.6) PC (35, 69.1) | 160 | 16 | - | Computerized cognitive training (Posit Science) 5 d/wk | 300 | Not clear | Supervised structured exercise program 5 d/wk | 250 | Fitness, strength | Low | Sequential | Individual | - | Cognitive: memory, language, PS, attention, EF Physical: fitness, strength |
| Shatil (2013) | USA | 122 | EI-CI (29, 79) EI (31, 79) CI (33, 80) AC (29, 81) | 96 | 16 | - | Computerized cognitive training (CogniFit) 3 d/wk | 120 | EF, PS, attention, language, memory | Supervised structured exercise program (FitnessForever™) 3 d/wk | 135 | Fitness, strength | Low | Separate | Group | AC: book reading | Cognitive: Memory, attention, EF, PS |
| Takeuchi et al. (2020) | Japan | 93 | EI-CI (30, 68) CI (30, 68.8) EI (33, 69.3) | 36 | 12 | - | Computerized cognitive training (Brain Age, Nintendo) 3 d/wk | 180 | EF | Center-based supervised stationary bike riding at 40–50% HRmax 3 d/wk | 90 | Fitness | Low | Simultaneous | Not clear | - | Cognitive: Memory, attention, EF, PS, language |
| Teixeira et al. (2013) | Brazil | 41 | EI-CI (21, 68.2) PC (20, 67.9) | 48 | 16 | - | Square stepping 3 d/wk | 120 | Attention, memory, EF | Supervised, structured square stepping exercises 3 d/wk | 120 | Strength, balance | None | Simultaneous | Group | - | Cognitive: global cognition, EF, memory, attention, PS |
| Theill et al. (2013) | Switzerland | 51 | EI-CI (18, 72.4) CI (12, 73.3) PC (21, 70.9) | 20 | 10 | - | Computerized working-memory training 2 d/wk | 60 | EF | Supervised center-based-treadmill walking at 60–80% HRmax 2 d/wk | 80 | Fitness | Moderate | Simultaneous | Not clear | - | Cognitive: attention, memory, EF, PS Physical: balance (gait) |
| van Het Reve and de Bruin (2014) | Switzerland | 145 | EI-CI (69, 81.1) EI (76, 81.9) | 84 | 12 | - | Computerized cognitive training (CogniPlus) 3 d/wk | 30 | Attention | Progressive strength training and balance training. 2 d/wk | 80 | Balance, strength | None | Sequential | Not clear | - | Cognitive: EF, attention Physical: balance (gait), fitness |
| Wollesen et al. (2017) | Germany | 83 | EI-CIb (30, 69.8) PCb (18, 72.7) EI-CIc (15, 72.2) PCc (20, 72) | 12 | 12 | - | Psychomotor tasks 1 d/wk | 60 | EF, attention | Supervised walking exercises 1 d/wk | 60 | Fitness | Low | Simultaneous | Group | - | Cognitive: EF Physical: balance (gait), fitness |
| Wongcharoen et al. (2017) | Thailand | 45 | EI-CI (15, 71.9) EI (15, 73.5) CI (15, 72.4) CI dual-task not incl. | 12 | 4 | - | Cognitive tasks 3 d/wk | 180 | Attention, memory, language | Home-based stance and gait activities 3 d/wk | 180 | Balance | None | Simultaneous | Mixed | - | Cognitive: EF, language Physical: balance (gait) |
| Yokoyama et al. (2015) | Japan | 25 | EI-CI (12, 74.2) EI (13, 74.2) | 48 | 12 | - | Verbal exercises, psychomotor tasks 3 d/wk | 180 | EF | Supervised structured exercise program 3 d/wk | 180 | Fitness, balance | None | Simultaneous | Group | - | Cognitive: global cognition, PS Physical: strength, fitness, balance |
| You et al. (2009) | South Korea | 13 | EI-CI (8, 68.3) EI-CC (5, 68) | 18 | 6 | - | Verbal exercises 3 d/wk | 90 | EF, memory | Supervised fast walking 3 d/wk | 90 | Fitness | Moderate | Simultaneous | Not clear | CC: Music | Cognitive: memory Physical: balance (gait) |
| Yu et al. (2021) | China | 347 | EI-CId (117, 64.7) EI-CC (114, 64) EI-CIe (116, 64) | 24 | 12 | - | Computerized cognitive training (Brainastic) 2 d/wk | 60 | EF, memory, attention | Aerobic circuit and resistance training 2 d/wk | 120 | Fitness, strength | Moderate | Sequential | Group | CC: DVDs | Cognitive: global cognition, memory |