Table 3.
Results of moderator analyses for pre-post comparisons between combined training vs. control, cognitive or physical single for cognitive and physical outcomes.
| Outcomes | Level 2 variance (%) | Level 3 variance (%) | Omnibus testa | QE | Comparison groups | # Studies | # ES | Mean difference in ES [95% CI] |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Cognitive functions | ||||||||
| Executive functions | 0.00 (7.811e-08) | 0.024 (22.971)*** |
F(2, 161) = 0.42, p = 0.657 |
189.618 | Combined vs. control | 21 | 80 | 0.2 [0.103, 0.297]*** |
| Combined vs. cognitive | 13 | 44 | 0.144 [0.021, 0.267]* | |||||
| Combined vs. physical | 14 | 40 | 0.199 [0.081, 0.316]*** | |||||
| Memory | 0.000 (4.286e-08) | 0.039 (36.098)*** |
F(2, 138) = 5.051, p = 0.008 |
251.221*** | Combined vs. control | 19 | 50 | 0.204 [0.088, 0.321]** |
| Combined vs. cognitive | 15 | 43 | 0.007 [-0.119, 0.134] | |||||
| Combined vs. physical | 17 | 48 | 0.117 [-0.017, 0.256]* | |||||
| Attention | 0.019 (17.262) | 0.02 (18.141) |
F(2, 47) = 5.176, p = 0.009 |
71.632* | Combined vs. control | 10 | 28 | 0.197 [0.038, 0.358]* |
| Combined vs. cognitive | 8 | 11 | −0.166 [-0.383, 0.051] | |||||
| Combined vs. physical | 7 | 11 | 0.19 [-0.015, 0.396] | |||||
| Language | 0.00 (7.64e-09) | 0.036 (45.287)*** |
F(2, 31) = 3.387, p = 0.047 |
30.875* | Combined vs. control | 6 | 11 | 0.305 [0.123, 0.487]** |
| Combined vs. cognitive | 9 | 11 | −0.008 [-0.201, 0.186] | |||||
| Combined vs. physical | 9 | 12 | 0.08 [-0.102, 0.264] | |||||
| Speed | 0.00 (1.312e-08) | 0.104 (54.037)*** |
F(2, 88) = 3.481, p =0.035 |
148.492** | Combined vs. control | 15 | 47 | 0.308 [0.129, 0.486]*** |
| Combined vs. cognitive | 9 | 19 | 0.046 [-0.163, 0.256] | |||||
| Combined vs. physical | 14 | 25 | 0.258 [0.069, 0.447]** | |||||
| Global cognition | 0.000 (1.211e-08) | 0.153 (86.725)* |
F(2, 15) = 1.655, p = 0.224 |
44.504*** | Combined vs. control | 8 | 10 | 0.525 [0.172, 0.877]** |
| Combined vs. cognitivea | 1 | 1 | NA | |||||
| Combined vs. physical | 2 | 7 | −0.048 [-0.621, 0.524] | |||||
| Composite scores | 0.052 (39.027) | 0.019 (14.62) |
F(2, 6) = 2.884, p = 0.133 |
16.743* | Combined vs. control | 5 | 4 | 0.392 [-0.017, 0.8] |
| Combined vs. cognitivea | 3 | 3 | NA | |||||
| Combined vs. physicala | 2 | 2 | NA | |||||
| Physical functions | ||||||||
| Fitness | 0.00 (2.848e-08) | 0.059 (61.28)*** |
F(2, 62) = 1.917, p = 0.156 |
176.29*** | Combined vs. control | 16 | 33 | 0.242 [0.075, 0.409]** |
| Combined vs. cognitive | 8 | 18 | 0.338 [0.105, 0.571]** | |||||
| Combined vs. physical | 9 | 15 | 0.064 [-0.185, 0.313] | |||||
| Balance | 0.00 (2.757e-08) | 0.026 (30.205)*** |
F(2, 92) = 0.192, p = 0.826 |
130.952** | Combined vs. control | 17 | 58 | 0.273 [0.149, 0.396]*** |
| Combined vs. cognitive | 4 | 12 | 0.196 [-0.052, 0.444] | |||||
| Combined vs. physical | 9 | 25 | 0.229 [0.045, 0.413]* | |||||
| Strength | 0.037 (18.584) | 0.092 (46.711) |
F(1, 27) = 0.266, p < 0.768 |
71.739*** | Combined vs. control | 12 | 20 | 0.372 [0.103, 0.642]** |
| Combined vs. cognitive | 3 | 5 | 0.463 [-0.081, 1.007] | |||||
| Combined vs. physical | 5 | 7 | 0.227 [-0.177, 0.632] | |||||
a
ES differences were only calculated for analyses with more than 3 ES.
#
Studies, Number of studies; #ES, Number of effect sizes; mean ES, mean Hedges' g; CI, Confidence interval; Level 2 variance, Variance in effect sizes within studies; Level 3 variance, Variance in effect sizes between studies; %, Proportion of the total variance of effect sizes attributed to this level; QE, test for heterogeneity in all effect sizes in the data set. Omnibus-test of all coefficients in the model (excluding the intercept).
*
p < 0.05;
**
p < 0.01;
***
p < 0.001.