Fig. 4.

Therapeutic applications of stem cell-based spheroids for tissue regeneration and repair. (a) Bone tissue regeneration and repair using human adipose-derived stem cell (hADSC) spheroids formed by adenosine/polydopamine-coated electrospun nanofiber fragments. Transplantation of spheroids into the calvarial defect promoted significant bone regeneration (image of micro-CT). Reproduced with permission from Ref. [168]. (b) Cartilage tissue regeneration and repair using ADSC spheroids formed by PLGA/chitosan scaffolds with porous structures and surfaces. The defect was repaired with the ADSC spheroids/scaffold (H&E staining). Reproduced with permission from Ref. [175]. (c) Nerve tissue regeneration and repair using BDNF-transfected ADMSC spheroids formed by Fe₃O₄ nanoparticles and chitosan scaffolds. BDNF-transfected spheroids enhanced the middle portion of the nerve conduit (H&E staining). Reproduced with permission from Ref. [117]. (d) Blood vessel tissue regeneration and repair using ADSC spheroids formed by PLGA-cystamine-PEG monomethyl ether porous hydrogels. Injection of spheroids/hydrogel solved by glutathione promoted angiogenesis and muscle regeneration (H&E staining). Reproduced with permission from Ref. [192]. (e) Dental tissue regeneration and repair using dental pulp stem cell (DPSC) spheroids formed by engineered gelled agarose microplate. Pulp-like tissue regenerated by DPSC spheroids (H&E staining). Reproduced with permission from Ref. [194]. (f) Skin tissue regeneration and repair using ADSC spheroids irradiated by an LED light source. The spheroids enhanced re-epithelialization and granulation (H&E staining). Reproduced with permission from Ref. [199].