Table 1.
Stem cell therapy for tissue repair and regeneration.
| Target tissue | Cell type (cell source) | Transplantation method | Material | Outcomes | Ref. |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Bone | BMSC (rat) | Collagen sponge vehicle loaded with BMSCs | Treatment with N-acetyl-l-cysteine | Enhanced new bone formation via treatment with N-acetyl-l-cysteine after 5 weeks | [73] |
| BMSC (human) | Integrin-specific hMSC-encapsulated hydrogel | 4-arm PEG macromers with terminal maleimide groups (PEG-4MAL) and GFOGER peptides | Enhanced inflammation inhibition, vascularization, and bone formation | [70] | |
| DPSC (human) | Transplantation of nanospike array loaded with DPSCs | PEGDMA nanospike | Significantly promoted the regeneration of cranial bone defect | [63] | |
| Periosteal stem cell (mouse) | Implantation of periosteal stem cells in Matrigel | Matrigel | Enhanced periosteal bone formation and normal cortical architecture | [74] | |
| BMSC (murine) | Injection of microporous hydrogel loaded with BMSCs | GelMA hydrogel | Bone tissue volume/total tissue volume >30%, bone mineral density >500 mg/cc, trabecular thickness >200 μm, and trabecular separation/spacing <0.5 mm | [72] | |
| Cartilage | BMSC (rabbit) | Injection of thermosensitive hydrogel loaded with BMSCs | Copolymers of PA-PEG-PA and PAF-PEG-PAF | Transparent tissue filling with smooth and consecutive surface | [80] |
| ICRS macroscopic score: 9.19 | |||||
| Histological score: 9.92 | |||||
| ADMSC (human) | Injection of ADMSC-loaded microbot with electromagnetic field control | PLGAMicroscaffold with ferumoxytol and chitosan | Low expression of proinflammatory genes and significant increase in COLII expression | [246] | |
| MSC (human) | Injection of MSCs encapsulated in hydrogel | Hyper-branched polyPEGDA and thiolated hyaluronic acid (HA) | ICRS macroscopic score: 12.68 ± 2.11 | [81] | |
| Reduced defect area: 0.148 ± 0.074 mm2 | |||||
| Total histological score: 20.05 ± 1.73 | |||||
| ASC (rabbit) | Implantation of cartilage extracellular matrix (ECM)-derived particles loaded with ASCs | Decellularized porcine knee articular cartilage | High ICRS macroscopic score, contact stiffness, reduced modulus, histological score, and bone volume | [82] | |
| Tendon | BMSC (dog) | Engineered tendon-fibrocartilage-bone composite and BMSC cell sheet | Decellularized canine patellar tendons | Improved collagen fiber organization and increased new fibrocartilage formation | [86] |
| BMSC (rat) | Aligned collagen fiber scaffold loaded with BMSCs | Collagen | Improved scoring, thickness, and weight of tendon; normal Achilles functional index; high quality of repair, as per histological score | [88] | |
| Tendon stem cell (TSC) (rat) | Implantation of scaffold loaded with TSCs | Biomimetic parallel-aligned collagen scaffold | Compact regeneration; smooth structure; more distributed structure; massive, spindle-shaped, tenocyte-like cells; and aligned collagen fibrous structure | [65] | |
| BMSC (rabbit) | Extracellular matrix scaffold and BMSC sheet | Decellularized bone-fibrocartilage-tendon tissue of rabbit | Bone tissue volume/total tissue volume >50%, trabecular thickness >35 μm, trabecular number <15/mm, high histological score, high failure load, and high stiffness | [87] | |
| Muscle | Muscle stem cells (MuSCs) | Transplantation of + decellularized muscle tissue 3D scaffold loaded with MuSCs | 3D scaffold (decellularized muscle tissue) | Bioconstruct made with human MuSCs and MRCs can generate functional muscle tissue in VML model. | [90] |
| iPSC-CM (human), MSC (human) | hiPSCs-CMs injected intramyocardially, and implantation of 3D-printed scaffold loaded with MSCs | PCL and porcine heart-derived decellularized extracellular matrix bioink | Improved cardiac function and capillary density, and reduced scar formation | [91] | |
| Nerve | Neural crest stem cell (NCSC) (human) | Injection of NCSCs | Electrical stimulation | Promoted axon regeneration and myelination | [95] |
| ASC (rat) | Implantation of ASC sheets | – | Improved the functional recovery, improved reinnervation, and prevented atrophy | [94] | |
| Periodontal ligament stem cell (PDLSC), gingival mesenchymal stem cell (GMSC) | Implantation of stem cell-encapsulated hydrogel | Alginate and hyaluronic acid hydrogel | Higher expression levels of neurogenic‐related genes, higher cell densities, and greater number of cell colonies | [96] | |
| iPSC derived NSC (murine) | Implantation of stem cell encapsulated- hydrogel | GelMA hydrogels | Reduced cavity areas, lesser collagen deposition, decreased inflammation, and promoted axonal regeneration | [97] | |
| Tooth | DPSC | Implantation of tooth slice and scaffolds loaded with DPSCs | Human DPSCs culture conditions containing human serum (DPSCs-HS) | DPSCs-HS produced a robust angiogenic response and regeneration of dentin equivalent to DPSCs-FBS. | [101] |
| DPSC | Implantation of human tooth root canal with DPSC constructs | Scaffold-free 3D cell constructs composed of DPSCs | Pulp-like tissues with rich blood vessels were formed within the human root canal 6 weeks after implantation | [102] | |
| Deciduous pulp stem cell (human) | Implantation of hDPSCs | – | Increased the length of the root, reduced the width of the apical foramen, and regeneration of dental pulp tissue containing sensory nerves (human patients) | [103] | |
| DPSC (human) | Implantation of injectable hydrogel encapsulating hDPSCs | Alginate and laponite hydrogel microspheres | Regeneration of rich microvessels and neotissue | [100] | |
| Skin | Gingival MSC (human) | Transplantation of 3D-printed scaffolds | Medical grade polycaprolactone | Least contraction, least scar area, accelerated wound closure, and most differentiated epithelium | [106] |
| ASC (human and mouse) | Injection of hydrogel encapsulating ASCs | Hyperbranched PEGDA and thiolated gelatin-based hydrogel | Accelerated chronic wound closure, enhanced neovascularization, and reduced inflammation in diabetic wound model | [105] | |
| ASC (rat) | Injection of hydrogel encapsulating ADSCs | Hyperbranched multi-acrylated PEG macromers and thiolated hyaluronic acid | Inhibition of inflammation, promotion of angiogenesis, and re-epithelialization in diabetic wound model | [107] | |
| MSC (human) | Transplantation of pre-vascularized hMSC cell sheets | – | Smallest contraction, best preservation of skin appendages, highest number and area of microvessels, lowest inflammatory reactions, and a morphology that more closely resembles normal skin | [108] | |
| ASC (human) | Transplantation of ASC sheets | – | Enhanced immunomodulatory and antifibrotic capabilities, and reduced scar formation | [109] |