Table 4.
Engineering tools for maturation of organoids.
| Engineering tool | Materials | Features | Stem cell (Derived species) | Organoid type | Ref |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Microwell | PEG | 400 μm (diameter) | Intestinal stem cells (mouse) | Gastrointestinal organoids | [212] |
| Polystyrene | 500 μm (diameter), 400 μm (depth), and 30 μm (dimple) | iPSCs (human) | Liver bud organoids | [213] | |
| PDMS | 800 μm (diameter) | Embryonic stem cell (human) | Cerebral organoids | [211] | |
| Alginate | 800 μm (diameter) | Adipose-derived MSC (human) | Vascularized organoids | [134] | |
| Microfluidic | PDMS, collagen type 1, Matrigel, | Two external medium reservoirs and two inlet and outlet reservoirs | Intestinal stem cells (human) | Intestinal organoids | [216] |
| PDMS | Pump-free microfluidic device | iPSCs (human) | Brain organoids | [215] | |
| PDMS and hyaluronic acid | Vasculature-like perfusion channel | iPSCs (human) | Retinal organoids | [217] | |
| PDMS | Five parallel functional channels | iPSCs (human) | Brain organoids | [252] | |
| Matrix | Allyl sulfide photodegradable hydrogel | Improved rate of degradation | Intestinal stem cells (mouse) | Intestinal organoids | [227] |
| RGD-functionalized PEG | Mechanically dynamic matrices | Intestinal stem cells (mouse and human) | Intestinal organoids | [226] | |
| Decellularized porcine small intestine mucosa | Biochemical signature of tissue-specific ECM | Intestinal stem cells (mouse) | Endodermal organoids | [118] | |
| PEG-4MAL hydrogels | Well-defined structure, stoichiometric incorporation of biofunctional groups, and tunable reaction timescales for in situ gelation | ESCs and iPSCs (human) | Intestinal organoids | [228] | |
| Alginate | Minimally supportive hydrogel with no inherent cell instructive properties | ESCs and iPSCs (human) | Intestinal organoids | [229] | |
| Amikagels | Improved stiffness, protein adsorption, and surface biochemistry/amine content | ESCs (human) | Islet organoids | [230] | |
| Bioreactor | Miniaturized spinning bioreactor | 12-well size | iPSCs (human) | Brain organoids | [221] |
| NASA-designed rotating-well vessel bioreactors | Rotation of 4, 24.3, 44.5 rpm | ESCs (mouse) | Retinal organoids | [222] | |
| Simple spinner-flask bioreactor | 125 mL spinner flask and rotation of 90 rpm | iPSCs (human) | Kidney organoid | [223] |