TABLE 4.
Characteristics of included studies investigating the relation between COVID-19 and diet1
| Study ID | Country | Study type | Sample size | Sample characteristics | Assessment tool | Outcome |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Alhusseini and Alqahtani, 2020 (80) | Saudi Arabia | Longitudinal observational | 2706 | Age: 18+ y Sex (F): 1466 (54.2%) Occupation/characteristics: General population | Dietary habit questionnaire | Increase in healthy food rating (P < 0.05) Increased consumption of home-cooked meals (P < 0.001) Increased quantity of food consumption (P < 0.001) |
| Robinson et al. 2020 (81) | UK | Cross-sectional | 2002 | Age: 34.74 ± 12.3 y Sex (F): 1236 (62%) Occupation/characteristics: General population | Short 13-item food-frequency questionnaire (SFFQ) | Diet during COVID-19 relative to baseline:Better: 694 (35%)Same: 620 (31%)Worse: 688 (35%) 56% reported snacking more frequentlyP value NR Having a higher BMI was independently associated with lower diet quality (P < 0.01) |
| Buckland et al. 2020 (65) | UK | Cross-sectional | 588 | Age: 33.4 ± 12.6 y Sex (F): 403 (69%) Occupation/characteristics: General population | Questionnaire | Increased food consumption: 268 (48%)Increased meal amount: 173 (31%)P values NR |
| Do et al. 2020 (82) | Vietnam | Cross-sectional | 5209 | Age:21–40 y: 4304 (82.6%)41–60 y: 905 (17.4%) Sex (F): 3495 (67.1%) Occupation/characteristics: Health care workers | Online survey | Dietary change compared with pre-pandemic:Unchanged or healthier: 5042 (96.8%)Lesshealthy: 167 (3.2%)P value NR |
| Carroll et al. 2020 (84) | Canada | Cross-sectional data (from longitudinal study) | 361 parents from 254 families | Age:Mothers 39.4 (SD 5.5) yFathers 37.5 (SD 4.8) y Children 5.7 (SD 2.0) y Sex: (F): 235 (65%) Occupation/characteristics: Families with young children | Food questionnaire | Eating more food since confinement (mothers, 57%; fathers, 46%; children, 42%) More snack foods (mothers, 67%; fathers, 59%; children, 55%)P value NR |
| Huber et al. 2020 (63) | Germany | Cross-sectional | 1964 | Age: 23.3 ± 4.0 y Sex (F): 1404 (71.5%) Occupation/characteristics: University students | Questionnaire | Overall food intake during lockdown:Increased: 31.2%Decreased: 16.8%P value NR Increase in food intake was mainly triggered by consumption of bread (increased in 46.8%) and confectionery (increased in 64.4%).P value NR |
| Visser et al. 2020 (64) | Netherlands | Longitudinal cohort | 1119 | Age: 74 ± 7 y Sex (F): 593 (52.8%) Occupation/characteristics: Dutch older adults | Questionnaire | Change in eating habits during pandemic:Eating less than normal: 12.1%P = 0.003Eating too little or losing weight: 6.6%P = 0.260Snacking more: 32.4% P < 0.001Skipping warm meals: 9.1%P = 0.003 |
| López-Moreno et al. 2020 (33) | Spain | Cross-sectional | 675 | Age: 39.1 ± 12.9 y Sex (F): 472 (70%) Characteristics: General public | Questionnaire | Overall worsening of diet: 112 (16.2%)Increased food intake: 19.6%Increased purchase of snacks: 39% Increased purchase of processed foods: 25%P value NR Overall improvement of diet: 266 (38.4%)Decreased food intake: 33.3%P value NR |
| Rodríguez-Pérez et al. 2020 (77) | Spain | Cross-sectional | 7514 | Age: ≤20 y: 22921–35 y: 2558 36–50 y: 237151–65 y: 1928≥65 y: 428 Sex (F): 5305 (70.6%) Occupation/characteristics: General population | Mediterranean Diet Adherence Screener (MEDAS) | Increased adherence to Mediterranean diet (P < 0.001) Reduced alcohol intake (P < 0.001) Self-reported “not eating more” during confinement: 63.7% (P < 0.001) |
| Sánchez-Sánchez et al. 2020 (72) | Spain | Cross-sectional | 1065 | Age: 38.7 ± 12.4 y Sex (F): 775 (72.8%) Occupation/characteristics: General population | Mediterranean Diet PREDIMED questionnaire | Increased adherence to Mediterranean diet (P = 0.004) Significant increase in daily portions of vegetables, olive oil, fruit, red meat, sugary/carbonated beverages (P < 0.05) Significant increase in proportion drinking wine ≥7×/wk (P < 0.001) |
| Ruiz-Roso et al. 2020 (69) | Spain (Madrid) | Cross-sectional | 72 | Age: 41.12 ± 13.05 ySex (F): 46 (64.1%) Occupation/characteristics: Cohort of adults with T2D(1) Between the age of 40 and 80 y, (2) BMI ≥25 and <40 kg/m2 | Phone interview | Snacking:Increased sugary food servings≥5 times/wk (2.9% vs. 5.7%)Increased snacking≥4 times/wk (5.7% vs. 12.9%) Significant increase in vegetable consumption (P < 0.0001) |
| Di Renzo et al. 2020 (66) | Italy | Cross-sectional | 3533 | Age: 40.03 ± 13.53 [12–86] y Sex (F): 848 (24%) Occupation/characteristics: General population | Mediterranean Diet Adherence Screener (MEDAS) | Healthier diet (fruit, vegetables, nuts and legumes): 37.4%Unhealthier diet: 35.8%P value NR Significant decrease in junk food consumption (P = 0.002) |
| Pietrobelli et al. 2020 (67) | Italy | Longitudinal | 41 | Age: 13.0 ± 3.1 y Sex (F): 19 (46%) Occupation/characteristics: Children and adolescents with obesity | Interview and questionnaire | Increased number of daily meals (P < 0.001) Increased fruit intake (P = 0.055); no change in vegetable intake Increase in potato chips, red meat, and sugary drink intake (P = 0.005) |
| Almandoz et al. 2020 (61) | USA (Texas) | Cross-sectional | 123 | Age: 51.2 ± 13.0 y Sex (F): 107 (87%) Occupation/characteristics: Adults with obesity | Survey/questionnaire | Dietary changes during pandemic:Stress eating: 61.2%Cooking more often: 63.8%Food behaviors:Reported healthy eating to be more challenging during pandemic: 61.2%Skipping meals when not food insecure: 12.1%P value NR |
| Knell et al. 2020 (73) | USA | Cross-sectional | 1809 | Age: 18+ y Sex (F): 1220 (67.4%) Occupation/characteristics: General population | Alcohol questionnaire | Significant increase in alcohol consumption (P < 0.01) |
| Błaszczyk-Bębenek et al. 2020 (26) | Poland | Cross-sectional | 312 | Age: 41.12 ± 13.05 y Sex (F): 200 (64.1%) Occupation/characteristics: General population | Dietary Habits and Nutrition Beliefs Questionnaire | Significant increase in number of meals consumed and snacking (P < 0.0001) Significant increase in alcohol (P = 0.0031) Significant decrease in takeaways and fast food (P < 0.0001) Significant decrease in energy drink consumption (P = 0.015) |
| Sidor and Rzymski 2020 (23) | Poland | Cross-sectional | 1097 | Age: 27.7 ± 9.0 [18–71] y Sex (F):1043 (95.1%) Occupation/characteristics: General population | Questionnaire | Dietary changes during pandemic:Eating more: 43.5%More frequent snacking: 51.8%Cooking more often: 62.3%P value NR Alcohol intake changes:Increase: 14.6%No change: 77%Unsure: 8.3%P value NR |
| Górnicka et al. 2020 (68) | Poland | Cross-sectional | 2381 | Age:≤30y: 70030–39 y: 106740–49 y: 30650–59 y: 160 Sex (F): 2138 (89%) Occupation/characteristics: Over 18 y, not pregnant or lactating/breastfeeding | Questionnaire | Increase in unhealthy eating (P < 0.001) Increase in confectionary and alcohol (P < 0.001) Positive dietary changes during pandemic:Increased water intake (P < 0.001) Decreased fast-food intake (P < 0.001) Increased consumption of homemade meals (P < 0.001) |
| Yan et al. 2020 (78) | China | Cross-sectional | 9016 | Age:18–80 y Sex (F): 5177 (57.4%) Occupation/characteristics: General population | Alcohol question | Significant increase in alcohol consumption (P < 0.001) 54% diabetic and 10.2% nondiabetic participants reported significant increases in drinking |
| Wang et al. 2020 (70) | China | Cross-sectional | 2289 | Age: 17.8 ± 12 y Sex (F): 1113 (49%) Occupation/characteristics: Healthy Chinese adults | Questionnaire adapted from online nutritional survey of Guangdong Nutrition Society and Sun Yat-sen University | Daily eating frequency:Reduced: 23.1% No change: 60%Increased: 17.3% Food behavior changes:Appetite unchanged: 71.4%Healthier diet: 23%More vegetables,fruits and milk: >30% Increased snacking: ∼30%P value NR |
| Elran-Barak and Mozeikov 2020 (71) | Israel | Cross-sectional | 315 | Age: 18+ y Sex (F): 178 (59.5%) Occupation/characteristics: Israelis with a variety of chronic conditions | Questionnaire | Overall food consumption:Much more than before: 19.7%A little more than before: 30.5%Same as before: 40.0%A little less than before: 7.0%Much less than before: 2.9%P value NR No significant change in fruit consumption (P = 0.060); decrease in vegetable consumption (P = 0.008) |
| Gallo et al. 2020 (50) | Australia | Cross-sectional | 2018 n = 174 (for diet 166)2019n = 185 (for diet 159)2020n = 150 (for diet 146) | Age: 19–27 y Sex (F):2018: 1012019: 962020: 82 Occupation/characteristics: Third-year biomedical practical students from University of Queensland in 2018, 2019, 2020 | Automated self-administered dietary assessment tool | Total energy intake over 24 h (females): No significant change between 2019/2020 (P = 0.067); significant increase between 2018 and 2020 (P < 0.05) Total energy intake over 24 h (males): No significant difference |
| Husain and Ashkanani 2020 (74) | Kuwait | Cross-sectional | 415 | Age: 38.47 ± 12.73 y Sex (F): 285 (68.7%) Occupation/characteristics: General population | Questionnaire | Significantly increased snacking (P = 0.006), more late-night snacks (P < 0.001). Main meal was significantly more likely to be freshly made (P = 0.001), with reductions in fast-food consumption (P < 0.001). Decreased frequency of seafood consumption; no change in beverage consumption |
| Steele et al. 2020 (75) | Brazil | Longitudinal | 10,116 | Age:18–39 y: 5174 (51.1%) 40–59 y: 4034 (39.9%)≥60 y: 908 (9.0%) Sex (F): 7895 (78.0%) Occupation/characteristics: Adults >18 y, NutriNet Brasil Cohort | Adaptation of an instrument developed by the authors for the Ministry of Health Surveillance of Risk and Protective Factors for Chronic Diseases by Telephone Survey | Dietary behavior changes during pandemic:Increased consumption of vegetables and fruits (P < 0.05) Increased consumption of beans/legumes (P < 0.05) |
| Malta et al. 2020 (76) | Brazil | Cross-sectional | 45,161 | Age: 18+ y Sex (F): 24,206 (53.6%) Occupation/characteristics: General population | Covid Behavior Survey | Alcohol consumption:Increased: 17.6%P value NR Healthy food consumption:Decreased regular consumption of vegetables (37.3% vs. 33%) Unhealthy food consumption ≥2 d/wk:Increase in frozen food intake (10.0% vs. 14.6%).Increase in savory snacks:(9.5% vs. 13.2%).Increased consumption of chocolate/desserts (41.3% vs. 47.1%)P value NR |
| Ruiz-Roso et al. 2020 (79) | Italy, Spain, Chile, Colombia, and Brazil | Cross-sectional | 820 | Age: 15 (10–19) y Sex (F): 501 (61.1%) Occupation/characteristics: Adolescents between 10–19 y | Online questionnaire | Legumes, vegetables, and fruit intakes were significantly increased (P < 0.05); reduced fast-food consumption (P< 0.0001) Increased intake of fried foods and sweet foods (P < 0.001) |
| Ammar et al. 2020 (83) | Asia (36%), Africa (40%), Europe (21%), and other (3%) | Cross-sectional survey | 1047 | Age: 18+ y Sex (F): 563 (53.8%) Occupation/characteristics: General population | Short Diet Behaviour Questionnaire for Lockdowns (SDBQ-L) | Increase in self-reported unhealthy eating (P < 0.001) Increased uncontrolled eating (P < 0.001) Increased snacking (P < 0.05) |
1
COVID-19, coronavirus disease 2019; NR, not reported; PREDIMED, Prevención con Dieta Mediterránea.