Table 1.
Original research articles related to the COVID-19 pandemic and OCD.
| References | Design | Sample size | Females (%) | Mean age | Country | Period | Population | Main findings |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Individuals with OCD | ||||||||
| Alonso et al. (32) | Cross-sectional, case-cohort study. Structured interviews, online, self-report survey (VAS, HDRS, DSM-5, Y-BOCS). | 364 | Patients: 53.5% Controls: 57.6% | Patients: 42.0 Controls: 40.8 |
Spain | April 27– May 25, 2020 |
Patients with OCD and controls from the general population | Individuals with OCD had more internalizing symptoms, suicidal thoughts, and sleep/appetite changes. OCD symptoms increased to a clinically significant degree in 40% of patients. Contamination symptoms predicted more COVID-focused symptoms and increases in OCD severity. Pre-pandemic OCD severity, depression, and social support predicted increase in OCD severity*. |
| Benatti et al. (33) | Cross-sectional study. Telephone (94%) and in-person (6%) interview. | 123 | 44.9% | 40.0 | Italy | N/A (at least 3 months after the initial outbreak) | Patients with OCD | 35.3% of patients experienced clinical worsening of OCD. The group with worsening OCD were characterized by the development of new obsession and/or the reoccurrence of past obsessions. The most frequent symptoms were excessive washing and cleaning in the total population. |
| Carmi et al. (34) |
Longitudinal study, clinical trial. Clinical evaluation, self-report survey (CGI-I). |
113 | 50% | 33.8 | Israel | April–May 2020 Reevaluation: September, 2020 |
Patients with OCD enrolled in a clinical trial | The majority of OCD patients with active therapy and pharmacological intervention did not report a worsening of symptoms during the COVID-19 pandemic. The majority of patients reported that COVID-19 did not impact their OCD. |
| Højgaard et al. (35) | Cross-sectional study. Self-report survey (Y-BOCS) | 201 | 65.7% | 39.7 | Denmark | April 6–29, 2020 | Patients with OCD | 61.2% of participants reported a worsening of OCD symptoms. Being female, demonstrating contamination symptoms, and psychiatric comorbidities were associated with increased OCD severity. |
| Jelinek et al. (36) | Cross-sectional study. Online, self-report survey (PHQ-9, OCI-R) | 394 | 73.9% | 37.8 | Germany | March 23–May 18, 2020 | Patients with OCD | 72% of the participants experienced a worsening in OCD symptoms. This deterioration was the most prominent in patients with washing compulsions. The worsening of symptoms was associated with reduced mobility and interpersonal conflicts. |
| Kaveladze et al. (37) | Cross-sectional study. Self-report survey (Dimensional Obsessive-Compulsive Scale) | 196 | 71.4% | 24.8 | USA | June 28–August 10, 2020 | Patients with OCD | Among a sample of adults who participated in online OCD support communities, 93% experienced symptom worsening and 96% stated having OCD made dealing with the pandemic more difficult. Rates of worsening were higher in unacceptable thought, harm, and contamination domains compared with symmetry/completeness*. |
| Khosravani et al. (27) | Longitudinal study. Online, telephone or in-person survey (DOCS, Y-BOCS, CSS) | 270 | 57.4% | 36 | Iran | Before outbreak. Reevaluation: May –July, 2020 |
Patients with OCD | Statistically significant increase in OCD severity in all OCD dimensions during the COVID-19 pandemic compared with pre-pandemic levels. COVID-19 related stress associated with increased OCD severity. |
| Khosravani et al. (38) | Cross-sectional study. Self-report survey (CSS, PHQ-4, FCV−19S, C19P–S, SHAI, VOCI, XS, HCQ-54, OCI-R, OCS). | 300 | 58.7% | 35.8 | Iran | June 1–August 15, 2020 | Patients with OCD | Contamination and checking obsessive-compulsive symptoms were significantly associated with all domains of COVID-19 stress responses, including danger/contamination fears, socio-economic consequences, traumatic stress, xenophobia, and compulsive checking. Patients with OCD had significantly more COVID-related stress in all domains than patients with social anxiety and specific phobias*. |
| Khosravani et al. (39) | Cross-sectional study. Self-report survey (DOCS, Y-BOCS, CSS, PHQ-4, BSS). | 304 | 58.6% | 35.8 | Iran | June 5–October 30, 2020 | Patients with OCD | COVID-19-related compulsive checking and traumatic stress mediated the relationships between harm and unacceptable thought symptoms and suicidal ideation. COVID-19-related compulsive checking mediated the relationship between overall OCD severity and suicidal ideation*. |
| Pan et al. (40) | Longitudinal (case-cohort) study. Online, self-report survey (QIDS, BAI, PSWQ, DJGLS) | 1,517 | 64% | 56.1 | Netherlands | Before outbreak. Reevaluation: Apr-May, 2020 |
Patients with OCD, anxiety or depression and controls from the general population | Individuals with OCD, anxiety and depression scored higher on the four-symptom scales compared to healthy controls from the general population both before and during the pandemic. Greater increase in symptoms was observed in healthy individuals. |
| Rosa-Alcázar et al. (41) |
Cross-sectional, case-control study. Online, self-report survey (Y-BOCS, HADS, COPE-28) | 237 | 55.7% | 33.5 | Spain | April 2020 | Patients with OCD, and controls from the general population | Individuals with OCD reported greater use of the following: instrumental support and religion. Individuals with OCD scored higher for self-blame. Within the OCD group, presence of comorbidities was associated with denial, substance use, and self-blame. Overall, results suggest patients living with OCD could benefit from adaptive coping strategies during COVID*. |
| Sharma et al. (42) | Longitudinal study. Telephone interview (Y-BOCS, MINI, CGI-S, CTS, DSM-5, WSAS) | 447 | Patients with OCD before the pandemic: 35% Patients with OCD before the pandemic:37% | Patients with OCD before the pandemic: 33.0 Patients with OCD before the pandemic:32.3 |
India | April 26–May 12, 2020 | Patients with OCD before and during the pandemic | No influence of the pandemic was observed on OCD symptoms when comparing patients with OCD during the pandemic with an independent sample of OCD patients before the pandemic. Remission rates among those with OCD were similar before and during the COVID-19 pandemic. |
| Storch et al. (43) | Cross-sectional study. Online survey filled by clinicians about their patients. (NIMH-GOCS, Y-BOCS) | 232 | 51% | 28.5 | USA | July 19–August 2, 2020 | Patients with OCD (data reported by their clinicians) | According to clinicians treating OCD patients with ERP before and during the pandemic, 38% of the patients had worsened symptoms, 47% stayed the same, and 10% had improved symptoms. The pandemic likely attenuated the efficacy of ERP therapy. |
| Toh et al. (44) | Longitudinal case-control study. Online, self-report survey (DASS-21, EUROHIS-QoL, OCI-R) | 264 | 89.4% | 32.9 | Australia | Baseline: April 2020 Follow-up: May 2020 |
Patients with OCD and controls from the general population | The OCD group reported increased rates of severe depression, anxiety, reduced quality of life, and stress compared to control group between April and May 2020. Obsessive washing and checking did not increase between the two timepoints. |
| Tundo et al. (45) | Cross-sectional study. Self-report survey (SCID-5, HDRS, Y-MANIA-RS, Y-BOCS, PAAAS, BSPS) | 386 | 59.3% | 52.0 | Italy | March 10–June 30, 2020 | Patients with OCD, and patients suffering from other mental illness |
Patients living with OCD, compared to other patients with depression, had a greater worsening of symptoms as a result of the pandemic. Differences were not found compared to other disorders*. |
| Wheaton et al. (46) | Cross-sectional, case-control study. Self-report survey (CTS, DOCS, DASS-21) | 548 | Patients: 79.2% Controls: 41.5% | Patients: 32.2 Controls: 38.2 |
USA | April 1–August 12, 2020 | Patients with OCD and controls from the general population | 76.2% of patients reported worsening of symptoms, and 58.3% reported COVID-19 becoming a point of their obsession. Concerns about COVID-19 were associated with OCD severity. 59.1% of patients reported COVID-19 interfering with their treatment. |
| General population samples | ||||||||
| Abba-Aji et al. (47) | Cross-sectional study. Online, self-report survey (BOCS, PSS, GAD-7, PHQ-9). | 6,041 | 86.6% | 42 | Canada | March 23–30, 2020 |
General population | 60.3% developed OCD symptoms during COVID-19 (fear of germs and viruses). Hand-washing compulsions developed in 53.8% of the population. OCD symptoms were associated with moderate/high stress, generalized anxiety disorder, and major depressive disorder. |
| Albertella et al. (48) | Cross-sectional study. Online, self-report survey (mYFAS2.0, IAT, PPCS-6, PGSI, AUDIT, OCI-R). | 878 | 53% | 32.0 | Australia | May–June, 2020 | General population | Younger age, greater COVID-19-related disruptions, greater psychological distress, and greater pre-COVID OCD were associated with obsessive-compulsive symptom severity*. |
| AlHusseini et al. (49) | Cross-sectional study. Online, self-report survey (PHQ-9, OCI-R) | 2,187 | 60.5% | N/A (50% aged <35) | Saudi Arabia | N/A (during lockdown) | General population | 62.4% of the respondents are likely to have OCD based on the OCI-R questionnaire. Older age, being male, being married, and having higher income were associated with increased OCD symptoms. |
| Cox et al. (50) | Longitudinal study. Online, self-report survey. (DASS, ISI, OCI-R) | 369 | 89.1% | 47.0 | USA | Baseline: 2016 Follow-up: April 1–8, 2020 |
General public | Increase in washing and hoarding symptoms during COVID-19 pandemic compared to 2016 levels. Other OCD symptoms like ordering, neutralizing, and obsession symptoms did not change. Pre-COVID-19 insomnia was associated with an increased COVID-19 incidence of OCD symptoms. |
| Damirchi et al. (51) | Cross-sectional study. Self-report survey (STS, TDAS, MOCI, Folkman and Lazarus Coping Strategies Inventory) | 300 | N/A (~72–79%) | N/A (range 18–54 years) | Iran | January 21–March 19, 2020 | General public | Positive correlations were found between self-talk and problem-centered coping. Inverse relationships between self-talk and emotional coping, death anxiety, and OCD symptoms were also found*. |
| De Pietri et al. (52) | Cross-sectional study. Self-report survey (HAQ, SAI, CES-D, OCI, BAI) | 660 | 86.2% | 31.1 | Italy | March 26–April 9, 2020 |
General public | Retrospectively rated pre-pandemic obsessing and hoarding factors of the Obsessive-Compulsive Index predicted increased anxiety during the quarantine period*. |
| El Othman et al. (53) | Cross-sectional study. Self-report survey (PHQ-9, PSS-4, LAS, Y-BOCS) | 386 | 75.9% | 31.3 | Lebanon | March 29–April 6, 2020 |
General public | Higher Y-BOCS compulsion scores were associated with more adherence to recommended hygienic practices, and higher Y-BOCS obsession scores were associated with information avoidance*. |
| Fontenelle et al. (54) | Cross-sectional study. Online, self-report survey (COROTRAS, DOCS, VOCI-MC, AAI, HRS-SR, MGHHS, SPS-R, DASS-21, WHODAS 2.0, Q-LES-Q-SF, CHIT, BIS) | 829 | 52.6% | 38.5 | USA | July 29–30, 2020 | General public | Statistically significant increase in OCD and related disorders, including body dysmorphic disorder and hoarding disorder compared to before pandemic levels. Based on the DOCS scale, 38.6% of respondents demonstrate severe symptoms of OCD during COVID-19, compared to 15.3% before the pandemic. |
| Karagöz et al. (55) | Longitudinal study. Interviews, self-report survey (BDI, BAI, PI-WSUR) | 139 | 31.7% | 55 | Turkey | March 20–June 20, 2020 | Patients with ST-Elevation Myocardial Infactrion (STEMI) | Higher contamination-related OCD was associated with delays of 120+ minutes going to the hospital for acute ST-Elevation Myocardial Infarction. Statistically significantly higher OCD subscale scores observed in March-April compared to April-June*. |
| Loosen et al. (56) | Longitudinal study. Online, self-report survey (PI-WSUR, HADS) | 406 | 57.3% | 34 | United Kingdom | Baseline: April 24–May 7, 2020 Follow-up: July 15–August 15, 2020 |
General public | Contamination OCD symptoms in the general population appeared at similar levels as in previously reported clinical samples. Obsessive-compulsive symptoms increased across the timepoints. Information-seeking predicted increased OCD symptoms*. |
| Mansfield et al. (57) | Medical record review (longitudinal design). Electronic health records (Clinical Research Practice Datalink Aurum). | 13% of UK population (~10 M/year) | 50% | N/A (aged >11) | United Kingdom | Jan 1, 2017–July 18, 2020 | General public | There were statistically significantly fewer visits for OCD (and all other mental-health conditions) in July 2020, compared with January 2017*. |
| Mazza et al. (58) | Cross-sectional study. Clinical interview, self-report survey (IES-R, PCL-5, ZSDS, STAI-Y, MOS-SS, WHIIRS, OCI) | 402 | 34.1% | 57.8 | Italy | April 6–June 9, 2020 |
COVID-19 survivors from the general public | 20% of COVID-19 survivors reported symptoms of OCD. Duration of hospitalization inversely correlated with the OCI-R*. |
| Moreira et al. (59) | Cross-sectional study. Online, self-report survey (DASS-21, OCI-R) | 1,280 | 79.8 | 37.1 | Portugal | March 23–31, 2020 |
General public | Elevated self-reported OCD was reported in 12% of the sample using the OCI-R. Younger age and education were predictors of obsessive compulsive symptoms. Presence of housemates, pets, or continuing work were not*. |
| Mrklas et al. (60) | Cross-sectional study. Online, self-report survey (PSS, GAD-7, PHQ-9, BOCS) | 8,267 | 86.2% | N/A (>90% aged >26) | Canada | March 23–May 4, 2020 | General public | Self-reported prevalence rates of moderate or high stress, anxiety, and depression were 85.6, 47.0, and 44.0%, respectively. Non-healthcare workers reported higher rates of OCD symptoms compared to healthcare workers. |
| Munk et al. (61) | Cross-sectional study. Online, self-report survey. (BCI, BDI, SHAI, PHQ, OCI-R, WHO-5, COPE, BRS) | 949 | 79.5% | 28.9 | Germany | March 27–April 3, 2020 | General public | Prevalence of at least one mental-health disorder in the sample was 50.6%. 21.4% of the surveyed population reported OCD symptoms. |
| Ojalehto et al. (62) | Cross-sectional study. Online, self-report survey (CAS, DASS-21, ASI3, DOCS, CSS, BVS). | 438 | 75.3% | 30.3 | USA | August 27–November 5, 2020 | General public | Contamination-related OCD symptoms (DOCS contamination subscale) are statistically significant univariate predictors of COVID-19-related severe anxiety. |
| Quittkat et al. (63) | Cross-sectional study. Online, self-report survey (BDSI, DASS-D, EDE-Q, PHQ, PSWQ-d, SIAS, SPS, WI, Y-BOCS) | 2,233 | 80.7 | 33.2 | Germany | April 2–May 6, 2020 |
General public | 2.1% of the population self-identified as suffering from OCD. No statistically significant changes in the level of OCD symptoms were found from November 2019 during COVID-19 (rated retrospectively). 36% of those with OCD reported worsening mental health*. |
| Robillard et al. (64) | Cross-sectional study. Online, self-report survey (PSS, DOCS, BRCS) | 6,040 | 70.3% | 51.8 | Canada | April 3–May 15, 2020 | General public | Obsessive-compulsive symptoms related to germs and contamination were significantly associated with increased stress levels during the outbreak*. |
| Samuels et al. (65) | Cross-sectional study. Online, self-report survey (Coronavirus Impact Scale, DY-BOCS, SMSPA, OCI-R, PHQ-4) | 2,117 | 54% | 46 | USA | September 17–30, 2020 | General public | COVID-19-related preventive behaviors were associated with contamination obsessions and phobias and an increase in OCD symptoms. 22.2% of responders reported high levels of contamination obsessions and 20.3% reported high levels of contamination phobias. |
| Wheaton et al. (17) | Cross-sectional study. Online, self-report survey (IUS-12, DOCS, SHAI, CTS) | 720 | 50.3% | 36.9 | USA | March 2–11, 2020 | General public. | Positive correlation between OCD symptoms, intolerance of uncertainty, health anxiety, and concerns about COVID-19. DOCS is a statistically significant univariate predictor of intolerance of uncertainty. |
| Zheng et al. (66) | Cross-sectional study. Online, self-report survey (Y-BOCS, SSRS, PSQI) | 541 | 57.5% | N/A (>85% aged <45) | China | July 9–19, 2020 | General public | Prevalence of demonstrating OCD symptoms was 18%. 89% of OCD patients had both obsessions and compulsions. Being unmarried, being a student, having a family history of OCD and other mental-health disorders, presence of psychiatric comorbidities, and sleep latency were risk factors for OCD. |
| Pregnant women | ||||||||
| Xie et al. (67) | Cross-sectional case-control study. Self-report survey (SCL90-R, PSQI, FES). | 3,346 | 100% | Before pandemic cohort: 28.9 During pandemic cohort: 29.0 |
China | Before pandemic cohort: March 1–December 31, 2019 During pandemic cohort: January 1–August 31, 2020 |
Pregnant women before the pandemic, and pregnant women during the pandemic |
Conflict with family was positively associated with OCD symptoms. No increases in OCD severity were noted among women who were pregnant before vs. during the pandemic*. |
| Yassa et al. (19) | Longitudinal case-control study. Self-report survey (STAI, MOCI) | 304 | 100% | 27.5 | Turkey | April, 2020 | Pregnant and non-pregnant women |
Increased prevalence of OCD (based on high MOCI scores) in 60% of the pregnant women and in 30% of the non-pregnant women during the COVID-19 pandemic. Non-pregnant women demonstrated higher levels of anxiety during the pandemic. |
| Healthcare workers | ||||||||
| Ahmed et al. (68) | Cross-sectional study. Online, self-report survey (BAI, Y-BOCS, BDI-2) | 524 | 57.4% | N/A (>50% aged 31–40 years) | Egypt | May 1–June 1, 2020 |
Healthcare workers and non-healthcare workers | 7% of healthcare workers self-reported moderate to severe OCD, whereas 3% of non-healthcare workers reported moderate-to-severe OCD. OCD severity was associated with female sex, urban residency, and chronic-disease history*. |
| Cai et al. (69) | Cross-sectional study. Online, self-report survey (SCL-30, Y-BOCS, SCSQ). | 616 | 63.8% | N/A (~90% aged 19–39 years) | China | February 5–25, 2020 |
Healthcare workers and non-healthcare workers | Non-healthcare workers reported statistically significantly more compulsions than healthcare workers*. |
| Ergenc et al. (70) | Cross-sectional study. Self-report survey (Obsessive-Compulsive Disorders Scale) | 198 | 72% | COVID-group: 35.6 Non-COVID: 33.7 | Turkey | N/A | Healthcare workers | Healthcare workers in the COVID-19-section scored higher on OCD, depression, and anxiety scales compared to healthcare workers in other sections. |
| Juan et al. (71) | Cross-sectional study. Online, self-report survey (IES-R, GAD-7, PHQ-9, Y-BOCS, PHQ-15) | 456 | 70.6% | 30.7 | China | February 1–14, 2020. | Healthcare workers | 37.5% of hospital staff experienced symptoms of OCD. Women, those with lower income, and those working on isolation wards had higher rates and more severe OCD symptoms. |
| Zhang et al. (72) | Cross-sectional study. Online, self-report survey (ISI, SCL-90-R, PHQ-4, PHQ-2, GAD-2) | 2,182 | 64.2% | N/A (96.3% aged 18–60) | China | February 19–March 6, 2020 | Healthcare workers | Medical health workers had a higher prevalence of insomnia, anxiety, depression, somatization, and OCD symptoms compared to non-medical health workers. Living in rural areas, being at risk of contact with COVID-19 patients, and having organic diseases were risk factors for OCD symptoms. |
| Zheng et al. (73) | Cross-sectional study. Online, self-report survey (PSQI, SCL-90) | 207 | 84.5% | N/A (>60% aged >30) | China | March 1–15, 2020 | Healthcare workers | 25.6% of the responding medical workers reported elevated OCD symptoms*. |
| Students and young adults | ||||||||
| Abuhmaidan et al. (74) | Cross-sectional study. Online, self-report survey (SCL-90-R) | 258 | 76.4% | N/A (91% >20 years) | United Arab Emirates | March, 2020 | University students (humanities and science) | The population was characterized by low levels of mental illness. Compared to the other mental health-related dimensions (e.g., depression, anxiety), OCD symptoms were the most severe. Female students and those younger than 20 showed the poorest mental health. |
| Bahçecioglu et al. (75) | Cross-sectional study. Online, self-report survey (OCS, WCI) | 628 | 76.4% | 21 | Turkey | October 4–17, 2020 |
University students (nursing) |
Nursing students had low levels of obsession with COVID-19, and demonstrated moderate coping skills. On average, female students were more stressed than male students. |
| Chen et al. (76) |
Cross-sectional study. Online, self-report survey (CCMD-3, Brief Response Questionnaire) |
992 | 52.8% | 19.3 | China | March 27, 2020 | University students | From a population of young people living in isolation for two months, 6% were categorized as high-risk, 63% were medium-risk, and 31% were low-risk of developing a mental illness. Unhealthy behaviors (e.g., smoking, alcohol consumption) increased the risk for psychological problems. Negative pandemic information increased anxiety, controllability, and vulnerability. |
| Darvishi et al. (77) | Cross-sectional study. Self-report survey (MOCI, CEQ) | 150 | 64.7% | 16.7 | Iran | N/A (before July 2020) | High-school and pre-university students | 67% of subjects may have demonstrated OCD symptoms. Prevalence in women is higher than in men (72.1 vs. 60.3%). Washing compulsion is the most common symptom. |
| Ji et al. (78) | Longitudinal study. Online, self-report survey (Y-BOCS, SAS) | 13,478 | 65.4% | 21.3 | China | Survey 1: February 8, 2020 Survey 2: March 15, 2020 Survey 3: April 30, 2020 | University students (medical and non-medical) |
Higher prevalence of OCD and anxiety levels in March (11.3%) compared to April (3.6%) and May (3.5%). Male students had higher prevalence of OCD symptoms compared to female students at all timepoints. |
| Jiang (79) | Cross-sectional study. Online, self-report survey (SCL-90) | Participants: 472 Population norm: 12,160 |
51.9% | N/A (aged 17–22 years) | China | February 10, 2020 | University students | Students had increased levels of obsessive behaviors compared with the general population. Students had insufficient knowledge about COVID-19 and demonstrate high-risk perceptions (i.e., high levels of fear of the virus and getting infected). |
| Knowles et al. (80) | Longitudinal study. Self-report survey (PI, OCI-R, CAI, CSBS, IAI, ISBS) | 108 | 75% | 19.6 | USA | Baseline: January 2020 Follow-up: February 27–March 26, 2020 |
University students | COVID-19 anxiety and precautionary behaviors were higher than for influenza. Mean levels of OCD washing symptoms increased between January 2020 and March 2020. |
| Meda et al. (81) | Longitudinal study. Self-report survey (BDI-2, BAI, OCI-R, EHQ, EDI-3). | 358 | 79.9% | 21.3 | Italy | Baseline: October–December, 2019 Follow-up: April–June, 2020 |
University students | Scores on the OCI-R were reduced over the course of the pandemic, independent of history of mental-health disorder or the participant's sex. 86% of the students did not experience a worsening of symptoms.* |
| Wheaton et al. (82) | Cross-sectional study. Online, self-report survey (ECS, CTS, DASS-21, OCI-R) | 603 | 87.6% | 22.9 | USA | April 5–May 13, 2020 | University students | Greater susceptibility to emotion contagion was associated with concerns about COVID-19, depression, anxiety, stress, and OCD symptoms. Emotion contagion moderated relationship between COVID-19-related media consumption and OCD symptoms.* |
| Children and adolescents | ||||||||
| Cho et al. (83) | Longitudinal study. Self-report survey (SHAPS, DTS, CASI, UPPS Impulsive Behavioral Scale, RCADS) | 2,120 | 61.2% | 21.2 (at follow-up) | USA | Baseline: 2016 Follow-up: May–August, 2020 |
Adolescents | High school students completed substance use assessments in 2016 and again in May-August 2020. Substance use in adolescence did not predict OCD severity in young adulthood during the pandemic.* |
| McKune et al. (84) | Cross-sectional study. Self-report survey. | 280 | 51.8% | N/A (range 5-18) | USA | April 2020 | School-age children | 32.1% of the population were at risk and 8.9% at high risk of OCD. OCD symptoms were associated with loss of household income, female sex, and younger age.* |
| Nissen et al. (85) | Cross-sectional study. Patient records, self-report survey (Y-BOCS) | 102 | Clinical group (CG): 63.1% Survey group (SG): 66.7% | Clinical group (CG): 14.9 Survey group (SG): 14.1 |
Denmark | April–May 2020 | Children newly diagnosed with OCD (CG), and children diagnosed with OCD years ago (SG) |
Children newly diagnosed or long-term diagnosed with OCD both experienced worsening of OCD, anxiety, depression, and avoidance behavior. Changes in the total OCD severity scores correlated with worsening levels of anxiety and depression. These findings were the most pronounced in children with early onset of ADHD and family history of ADHD. |
| Seçer et al. (86) | Cross-sectional study. Online, self-report survey (OCI-CV, ERS, Depression and Anxiety Scale for Children, Fear of COVID-19 Scale) | 598 | 61.1% | 16.4 | Turkey | N/A | Adolescents | Increased OCD symptoms in adolescents. Fear of COVID-19 is associated with the development of OCD symptoms and is a predictor of depression- and anxiety-related symptoms. Experiential avoidance mediates the relationship between fear of COVID-19 and OCD symptoms. |
| Previous pandemics and OCD | ||||||||
| Brand et al. (87) | Cross-sectional study. Self-report survey (OCI-R, ASI3, Swine Flu inventory, OBQ-44, DS-R) | 393 | 68% | 20.1 | USA | November 2009–March 2011 | University students | OCD symptoms predicted Swine Flu-related fears. Disgust sensitivity mediated the relationship between both OCD beliefs and OCD symptoms and Swine Flu-related fears. |
*Summary extracted or adapted from the systematic review: A.G. Guzick, A. Candelari, A.D. Wiese, S.C. Schneider, W.K. Goodman, and E.A. Storch, Obsessive–Compulsive Disorder During the COVID-19 Pandemic: a Systematic Review. Current psychiatry reports 23 (2021) 1-10.
AAI, Appearance Anxiety Inventory; ASI3, Anxiety Sensitivity Index-3; AUDIT, Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test; BAI, Beck Anxiety Inventory; BCI, Behavioral Item Regarding Corona; BDI, Beck-Depression-Inventory; BDSI, Body Dysmorphic Symptoms Inventory; BIS, Barratt Impulsivity Scale; BOCS, Brief Obsessive-Compulsive Scale; BRCS, Brief Resilient Coping Scale; BRS, Brief Resilience Scale; BSPS, Brief Social Phobia Scale; BSS, Beck Scale for Suicidal Ideation; BVS, Body Vigilance Scale; C19P–S, COVID-19 Phobia Scale; CAHSA, Continuum of Auditory Hallucinations – State Assessment; CAI, Coronavirus Anxiety Inventory; CAS, Coronavirus Anxiety Scale; CASI, Childhood Anxiety Sensitivity Index; CCMD-3, Chinese Classification of Mental Disorders; CEQ, Cognitive Errors Questionnaire; CES-D, Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale; CGI, Clinical Global Impressions; CGI-I, Global Clinical Impression–Improvement; CGI-S, Clinical Global Impression–Severity; CHIT, Cambridge-Chicago Compulsivity Trait Scale; COPE, Coping Survey; COROTRAS, Coronavirus Traumatic and Stressful Life Events Scale; CSBS, Coronavirus Safety Behaviors Scale; CSS, Contamination Cognitions Scale; CSS, COVID Stress Scale; CTS, COVID-19 Threat Scale; DASS, Depression Anxiety Stress Scales; DASS-D, Depression Anxiety Stress Scales – Depression Subscale; DJGLS, De Jong Gierveld Loneliness Scale; DOCS, Dimensional Obsessive Compulsive Scale; DSM-5, The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders; DS-R, Disgust Scale-Revised; DTS, Distress Tolerance Scale; DY-BOCS, Dimensional Yale-Brown Obsessive-Compulsive Scale; ECS, Emotion Contagion Scale; EDE-Q, Eating Disorder Examination-Questionnaire – 2nd Edition; EDI-3, Eating Disorder Inventory – 3; EHQ, Eating Habits Questionnaire; ERS, Emotion Reactivity Scale; EUROHIS-QoL, European Health Interview Surveys-Quality of Life; FCV−19S, Fear of COVID-19 Scale; FES, Family Environment Scale; GAD-7/GAD-2, Generalized Anxiety Disorder Assessment; HADS, Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale; HAQ, Health Anxiety questionnaire; HCQ-54, Health Concerns Questionnaire-54; HDRS, Hamilton Depression Rating Scale; HRS-SR, Hoarding Rating Scale-Self Report; IAI, Influenza Anxiety Inventory; IAT, Young's Internet Addiction Test; IES-R, Impact of Events Scale-Revised; ISBS, Influenza Safety Behavior Scale; ISI, Insomnia Severity Index; IUS-12, Intolerance of Uncertainty Scale; LAS, Lebanese Anxiety Scale; MGHHS, Massachusetts General Hospital Hairpulling Scale; MINI, Mini International Neuropsychiatric Interview; MOCI, Maudsley Obsessive-Compulsive Inventory; MOS-SS, Medical Outcomes Study Sleep Scale; mYFAS2.0, Modified Yale Food Addiction Scale 2.0; N/A, Not available information; NIMH-GOCS, National Institute of Mental Health Global Obsessive Compulsive Scale; OBQ-44, Obsessional Beliefs Questionnaire-44; OCI-CV, Obsessive Compulsive Inventory – Child Version; OCI-CV, Obsessive Compulsive Inventory–Child Version; OCI-R, Obsessive-Compulsive Inventory-Revised; OCS, Obsession with COVID-19 Scale; PAAAS, Panic Attack and Anticipatory Anxiety Scale; PCL-5, PTSD Checklist for DSM-5; PGSI, Problem Gambling Severity Index; PHQ-2/PHQ-4/PHQ-9/PHQ-15, Patient Health Questionnaire; PI, Padua Inventory; PI-WSUR, Padua Inventory-Washington State University Revision; PPCS-6, Short Version of the Problematic Pornography Consumption Scale; PSQI, Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index; PSS, Perceived Stress Scale; PSWQ/ PSWQ-d, Penn State Worry Questionnaire; QIDS, Quick Inventory of Depressive Symptoms; Q-LES-Q-SF, Quality of Life, Enjoyment, and Satisfaction Questionnaire-Short Form; RCADS, Revised Children's Anxiety and Depression Scales; SAI, Social Anxiety Inventory; SAS, Zung Self-Rating Anxiety Scale; SCID-5, Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-5; SCL-30, Symptom Check List-30; SCL90-R, Symptom Checklist-90 Revised; SCSQ, Simplified Coping Style Questionnaire; SHAI, Short Health Anxiety Inventory; SHAPS, Snaith Hamilton Pleasure Capacity Scale; SIAS, Social Interaction Anxiety Scale; SMSPA, Severity Measure for Specific Phobia–Adult; SPS, Social Phobia Scale; SPS-R, Skin Picking Scale-Revised; SSRS, Social Support Rating Scale; STAI/ STAI-Y, The State-Trait Anxiety Inventory; STS, Self-Talk Scale; TDAS, Templer Death Anxiety Scale; UPPS, UPPS Impulsive Behavioral Scale; VAS, Visual Analog Scale; VOCI-MC, Vancouver Obsessional Compulsive Inventory – Mental Contamination; VOCI-MC, Vancouver Obsessional Compulsive Inventory; WCI, Ways of Coping Inventory; WHIIRS, Women's Health Initiative Insomnia Rating Scale; WHO-5, Well-being Index; WHODAS 2.0, World Health Organization Disability Assessment Schedule 2.0; WI, Whitely Index; WSAS, Work and Social Adjustment Scale; XS, xenophobia scale; Y-BOCS, Yale-Brown Obsessive-Compulsive Scale; Y-MANIA, Y-MANIA Rating Scales; Y-MANIA-RS, Y-MANIA Rating Scales; ZSDS, Zung Self-Rating Depression Scale.