Table 1.
Methodologies and radioisotopes used to image immunotherapy targets.
| Immunotherapy Type | Molecular Imaging Target | Tracer Type | Applicable Radionuclide Used (reference in brackets) |
|---|---|---|---|
| Anti-PD-1 Antibody | PD-1 Receptor | mAB | 89Zr64,114,115,130 Cu88,113,131–133 |
| Anti PD-L1 Antibody | PD-1 Ligand | mAb | 89Zr17,134–142 64Cu88,89,132,111,143 In144 |
| Probody | 89Zr142 | ||
| Peptide | 18F145 68Ga146 64Cu144,145,147 | ||
| Affibody | 18F127 | ||
| Adnectin | 18F116,128,148 | ||
| HAC-PD1 | 64Cu87,131 | ||
| Nanobody | 99mTc68,97 Ga149, 18F150 64Cu150 | ||
| (Camelid VHH) | 68Ga151 | ||
| Single Domain antibody | 89Zr152,153 | ||
| Anti CTLA-4 Antibody | CTLA-4 | mAb | 64Cu25,26,154 |
| CD28, CD80, CD86 | F(ab’)2 fragment | 64Cu26 | |
| TIGIT Antibody | TIGIT protein extracellular domain | mAb | 64Cu29 89Zr29 |
| LAG-3 Antibody155,156 | LAG-3 protein extracellular domain | Nanobodies | 99mTc157 |
| Cellular Therapies | |||
| CAR T-Cell Therapy | Direct labelling CAR T-cell | 18F-FDG | 18F158,159 |
| 64Cu-PTSM | 64Cu160 | ||
| SPION-64Cu | 64Cu161* | ||
| 89Zr-Oxine | 89Zr126,162–165 | ||
| 89Zr-DBN | 89Zr166 | ||
| 89Zr Df-Bz-NCS | 89Zr167 | ||
| Minibody | 89Zr22 | ||
| Bispecific antibody | 89Zr168 | ||
| Antibody Fragments | 89Zr169 | ||
| Sodium Iodide Symporter | 124I169 | ||
| Reporter Gene Labelling Transporter | Norepinephrine transporter | 18F170,171 | |
| Enzyme | Pyruvate Kinase | 124I172 | |
| Cell Surface Receptor | Thymidine Kinase | 18F173 | |
| Somatostatin receptor | 18F174 68Ga175 | ||
| Cell Surface Protein | PSMA | 18F176 | |
| Immune Cell Subtype(s) | |||
| Activated CD8+T lymphocytes | dCK, dGK | F-AraG | 18F177 |
| CD3+T Lymphocytes | CD3 | mAb | 89Zr178,179 |
| Bispecific antibodies | 89Zr180,181 | ||
| Cytotoxic T Lymphocytes & NK Cells | Granzyme B | NOTA-GZP | 68Ga168,178,182 |
| Tumour Associated Macrophages (TAMS) | High density lipoprotein | Phospholipid or ApoA1 HDL | 89Zr183 |
| Macrophage mannose receptor (MMR) or CD206 | Anti-MMR single domain Ab fragment | 68Ga184 | |
| TSPO | 18 kDa (TSPO) transmembrane domain protein on the outer membrane of mitochondria | 18F185,186 | |
| Macrin | Polyglucose nanoparticle | 64Cu187 | |
| Liposomes | Mannose coated liposomes | 64Cu188 | |
| CD11 | Monoclonal Antibody | 89Zr189 | |
| Myeloid Derived Suppressor Cells | CD11 | Monoclonal Antibody | 89Zr189 |
| Cancer Associated Fibroblasts | Fibroblast activation protein | 68Ga190 | |
| Fibroblast activation protein inhibitor | 18F191 68Ga192 | ||
mAB monoclonal antibodies, HAC high-affinity consensus, bsAb bispecific antibodies, CAR Chimeric antigen receptor T-cell, dGk Deoxyguanosine kinase, 64Cu-PTSM 64Cu-pyruvaldehyde-bis(N4-methylthiosemi-carbazone), SPION super paramagnetic Iron-Oxide nanoparticles, 89Zr r-DBN 89Zr -desferrioxamine-NCS, 89Zr Df-Bz-NCS 89Zr-p-Isothiocyanatobenzyl-desferrioxamine.
*Denotes MRI imaging.