Table 3.
Summary of sublethal adverse effects of metal and non-metal QDs on prokaryotic and eukaryotic terrestrial and aquatic organisms including lowest observed effect concentrations (LOECs) from published studies.
| Type of Quantum Dot | Capping Agent or Surface Modification | Organism | Life Stage or Tissue | Exposure Conditions | Effect | Effect Concentration | Concentration Range | Cause of effect | Citation |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Cadmium-based QDs | |||||||||
| CdS | - | Bakers’ yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) | strain BY4742 | 28°C | Oxidative stress; increased ROS; decreased GSH; decreased respiratory cytochromes; mitochondrial dysfunction and disrupted morphology | 75 mg/L QD | 75– 150 mg/L QD | Cadmium ion | Pasquali et al., 2017 |
| CdS | MPEG-SH | Blue mussel (Mytilus edulis) | hemocytes | 15°C; 4 hr exposure | Increased genotoxicity and double strand breaks | 10 mg/L QD | 0.1–10 mg/L QD | Ions and Particles | Munari et al., 2014 |
| CdS | GSH | Clam (Scrobicularia plana) | Adults (2.7±0.5 g wet wt) | 15°C; 24 hr dark; 14-day static exposure and daily renewal | Impaired foot movement (behavior); accumulation of Cd in clam tissue; increased CAT, SOD, and GST activity; increased CSP-3-like (caspase) activity | 10 ug Cd/L | - | Ions and Particles | Buffet et al., 2015 |
| CdS | - | Daphnid (Daphnia magna) |
Neonates (<24h old) | 20 ± 2°C and 16:8 hr L:D; QDs weathered for 24hr in sunlight; 48h static exposure | Increased immobilization post UV exposure | 0.376 mg/L | 0.38–1 mg/L | Cadmium ion | Silva et al. 2016 |
| CdS | GSH | Mussel (Mytilus galloprovincialis) | Hemocytes and gill cell | 24 hr in vitro exposure: 18°C | Reduced cell viability; oxidative stress through increased ROS, increased DNA damage; Increased lysosomal acid phosphatase and multixenobiotic resistance activity; increased internalization of QD into hemocytes; gill cells more sensitive than hemocytes | 1 mg Cd/L, hemocytes; 5 mg Cd/L gill cells | 0.001–100 mg Cd/L | Cadmium ion | Katsumiti et al, 2014 |
| CdS | TOPO | Soybeans (Glycine max) | 11 d seedlings | 24°C and 16:8 hr L:D; 30% humidity; 14 day exposure | Altered metabolism; Downregulation of GSH pathways; Upregulation of amino acid biosynthesis, tricarboxylic acid cycle, and glycolysis pathways | 200 μg/mL vermiculite | - | Particles | Majumdar et al 2019 |
| CdS | PVP | Soybeans (Glycine max) | 11 d seedlings | 24°C and 16:8 hr L:D; 30% humidity; 14 day exposure | Altered metabolism; Downregulation of GSH pathways; Upregulation of amino acid biosynthesis, tricarboxylic acid cycle, and glycolysis pathways | 200 μg/mL vermiculite | - | Particles | Majumdar et al 2019 |
| CdS | MAA | Soybeans (Glycine max) | 11 d seedlings | 24°C and 16:8 hr L:D; 30% humidity; 14 day exposure | Altered metabolism; Downregulation of GSH pathways; Upregulation of amino acid biosynthesis, tricarboxylic acid cycle, and glycolysis pathways | 200 μg/mL vermiculite | - | Particles | Majumdar et al 2019 |
| CdS | GLY | Soybeans (Glycine max) | 11 d seedlings | 24°C and 16:8 hr L:D; 30% humidity; 14 day exposure | Altered metabolism; Downregulation of GSH pathways; Upregulation of amino acid biosynthesis, tricarboxylic acid cycle, and glycolysis pathways | 200 μg/mL vermiculite | - | Particles | Majumdar et al 2019 |
| CdS/ CdTe | COOH | Mussel (Elliptio complanata) | Adult mussel hemolymph | 15°C; 21 h exposure; QD allowed to aggregate and size fractionated | Increased cytotoxicity; increased phagocytosis in large particles; stimulated immunoactivity | 0.42 μg/ mL | 0.18–2.7 ug/ ml Cd | Cadmium ions and aggregates | Bruneau et al., 2013 |
| CdS/ CdTe | COOH | Mussel (Mytilus edulis) | Adult mussel hemolymph | 15°C; 21 h exposure; QD allowed to aggregate and size fractionated | Increased cytotoxicity; reduced phagocytosis in small particles and increased phagocytosis in large particles; stimulated immunoactivity | 0.86 μg/mL | 0.18–2.7 ug/ ml Cd | Cadmium ions and nanoparticles | Bruneau et al., 2013 |
| CdS/ CdTe | COOH | Rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) | Fish leukocytes | Harvested from head kidney tissues; 21 hr exposure; QD allowed to aggregate and size fractionated | Decreased cell viability; increased phagocytosis in multiple particle sizes; increased immunoactivity and phagocytic efficiency | 0.43ug/mL Cd | 0.18–2.7 ug/ ml Cd | Cadmium ions and aggregates | Bruneau et al., 2013 |
| CdSe | PMAO or PEI | Bacillus subtilis | - | 37°C; 48 hr exposure | Increased mortality | 40 nM QD | 10 mg/L; 1g/L Cd | Metal ions | Mahendra et al., 2008 |
| CdSe | PMAO or PEI | Escherichia coli | - | 37°C; 48 hr exposure | Reduced growth | >40 nM QD | 10 mg/L; 1g/L Cd | Metal ions | Mahendra et al., 2008 |
| CdSe | MPS | Pseudomonas aeruginosa | - | 30°C; pH 7.4; 24 hr dark; 24 hr exposure | Reduced growth; increased mortality; ROS formation; QD internalization | 10 mg/L Cd | 10–125 mg/L Cd | Metal ions and particles | Priester et al., 2009 |
| CdSe | PSMA | Diatom (Phaeodactylum tricornutum) | - | 21 ± 1°C; 16:8 hr L:D; seawater; 5 hr and 3-day exposures | Increased Cd release and internalization with increased salinity; Increased phytochelatins | 0.5nM QD (240nM Cd equivalent) | 0.4–1nM QD (20–480nM Cd equivalent) | Cadmium Ion | Morelli et al, 2012 |
| CdSe | - | Protozoa (Tetrahymena thermophila) | - | 30°C; QD-exposed bacteria prey; 24 hr exposure | Impaired growth and movement; oxidative damage; reduced digestion; low QD degradation after trophic transfer; cadmium biomagnification | 3.311 ± 152 mg/L Cd in prey bacteria | Cadmium ions | Werlin et al., 2011 | |
| CdSe/ZnS | - | Bacillus subtilis | 37°C; 48 hr exposure with weathered QDs | Reduced growth and increased mortality from weathered QDs | 10 nM QD | 10 mg/L; 1g/L Cd | Metal ions | Mahendra et al., 2008 | |
| CdSe/ZnS | - | Escherichia coli | - | 37°C; 48 hr exposure with weathered QDs | Reduced growth and increased mortality from weathered QDs | 10 nM QD | 10 mg/L; 1g/L Cd | Metal ions | Mahendra et al., 2008 |
| CdSe/ZnS | PSMA | Diatom (Phaeodactylum tricornutum) | - | 21 ± 1°C; 16:8 hr L:D; seawater; 5 hr and 3-day exposures | Decreased growth rates; increased phytochelatins and ROS; increased SOD and CAT activity; Increased Cd release with increased salinity | 0.5nM QD (240nM Cd equivalent) | 0.4–1nM QD (20–480nM Cd equivalent) | Cadmium ion and nanoparticle | Morelli et al, 2012 |
| CdSe/ZnS | PSMA | Marine Diatom (Phaeodactylum tricornutum) | - | 21 ±1°C; 16:8 hr L:D; seawater: 7–8 days exposure | Decreased growth rate; growth inhibition; significant protein profile using SELDI-TOF-MS biomarker detection | 2.5 nM QD | - | Ions and Particles | Scebba et al., 2016 |
| CdSe/ZnS | MSA | Caenorhabditis elegans | Adults | 15°C; 6-day exposure | Impaired reproduction and fecundity; higher embryo mortality; prematurely laid embryos; higher frequency of phenotypic deformity; reduced life span | 0.10uM | 0.01–1 μM QD | Nanoparticles | Hsu et al., 2012 |
| CdSe/ZnS | PEG, NH2, or COOH | Ceriodaphnia dubia | Adult (>72 hr) | 24 ±1°C; 24 hr dark; 24 hr static exposure; 24 hr depuration | Higher levels of QD-COOH retained after depuration; QDs crossed interstitial barrier | 8 nM QD | - | Nanoparticles | Feswick et al., 2013 |
| CdSe/ZnS | MUA | Daphnia Magna | 36 hr exposure; 3 nm green QDs | QDs localized to gut and intestines; QDs did not dissolve; QDs may have aggregated in exposure media prior to ingestion | 15 nmol/L QD | Particles | Jackson et al., 2009 | ||
| CdSe/ZnS | MUA | Daphnia Magna | - | 36 hr exposure; 6 nm red QDs | QDs localized to gut and intestines; QDs did not dissolute; QDs may have aggregated in exposure media prior to ingestion | 15 nmol/L QD | Particles | Jackson et al., 2009 | |
| CdSe/ZnS | PEG, NH2, or COOH | Daphnia magna | Adult (>72 hr) | 24 ±1°C; 24 hr dark; 24 hr static exposure followed by 24 hr depuration | Internalization of QDs (QD body burdens order COOH>NH2>PEG); QDs crossed interstitial barrier | 8 nM QD | - | Nanoparticles | Feswick et al., 2013 |
| CdSe/ZnS | PAA, PMAO, PEG | Daphnia magna | neaonate | 22± 1°C; 16:8 hr L:D; pH 7.2–7.6; 24 hr exposure; 48 hr depuration | Increased mortality; incomplete gut clearance during depuration; increased QD retention with feeding; cadmium and nanoparticle accumulation | 7.7 nM QD (0.6 ppm Cd) | - | Nanoparticles | Lewinski et al., 2010 |
| CdSe/ZnS | GA | Daphnia Magna | Juvenile (4–6d) | 20 ± 1°C; 16:8 hr L:D; 48 hr static exposure; UV-B irradiation | Decreased survival; increased ROS production; increased Cd2+ release with UV-B irradiation | 30 ug/L QD | 0, 0.95, 3, 9.5, 30, and 94.9ug/L QDs | Cadmium ion | Kim et al., 2010 |
| CdSe/ZnS | MPA | Daphnia Magna | Juvenile (4–6d) | 20 ± 1°C; 16:8 hr L:D; 48 hr static exposure; UV-B irradiation | Decreased vitellogenin expression with UV-B; increased Cd2+ release with UV-B irradiation | 3 ug/L QD | 0, 0.95, 3, 9.5, 30, and 94.9ug/L QDs | Cadmium ion | Kim et al., 2010 |
| CdSe/ZnS | MPA | Alfalfa (Medicago sativa) | Cells | 24°C; 24 hr dark | Increased SOD, catalase, and glutathione reductase activity; increased single and double strand breaks; upregulation of DNA repair enzymes and antioxidant defense genes | 10 nM QD | 10, 50 and 100 nM QD | Particles | Santos et al., 2013 |
| CdSe/ZnS | COOH | Plant (Arabidopsis thaliana) | Rosette production stage (3–4 weeks) | Hoaglands solution; 27 ± 2°C; 16:8 hr L:D; pH 6.0; 1–7 day exposures; humic acid co-exposure | Intact QDs absorbed into root cell wall (no internalized QDs); cadmium ion internalized into cells; increased oxidative stress through decreased GSH in treatment with humic acids | 5.8 nM QD (5 ug/mL Cd) | - | Cadmium ions | Navarro et al., 2012 |
| CdSe/ZnS | PEG-COO− | Rainbow Trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) | Embryos (eyed egg stage) | 10 ± 0.5°C; pH 8.0; 24 hr dark; 14-day static exposure | Increased mortality; increased gill ventilation frequency; increased heart rate; decreased behavioral responses; increased developmental malformations; QD localized in the gills/head | 4 × 10−9 mol/L QD | - | Ions and Particles | Jurgelėnė et al., 2018 |
| CdSe/ZnS | - | Atlantic Killifish (Fundulus heteroclitus) | Adults | 20°C; 16:8 hr L:D; 20 ± 2ppt salinity; static; fed 2x daily QD discs; 85-day exposure | Maternal transfer of Cd into eggs; increased male expression of vitellogenin; impaired fecundity; cadmium accumulation in liver | 10 ug QD/ day | 1–10 ug QD/ day | Ions | Blickley et al., 2014 |
| CdSeS/ZnS | COOH | Bacteria (Vibrio fischeri) | - | QDs weathered for 24 hr in sunlight; 30 min exposure | EC20 of bioluminescence inhibition for 30 min exposure pre and post UV exposure | 0.293 mg/L (pre), 0.012 mg /L (post) | QDs 0.209–0.75 mg/L | Cadmium ion | Silva et al. 2016 |
| CdSeS/ZnS | COOH | Green Algae (Chlorella vulgaris) | - | 20 ± 3°C; 16:8 hr L:D; QDs weathered for 24 hr in sunlight; 48 hr static exposure | Reduced growth rate | 0.251 ug/L | QDs 0.209–0.75 mg/L | Cadmium ion | Silva et al. 2016 |
| CdSeS/ZnS | COOH | Microalgae (Raphidocelis subcapitata) | - | 20 ± 3°C; 16:8 hr L:D; QDs weathered for 24 hr in sunlight; 48 hr static exposure | Reduced growth rate | 0.625 mg/L | 0.209–0.75 mg/L | Cadmium ion | Silva et al. 2016 |
| CdSeS/ZnS | COOH | Crustacean (Daphnia magna) | Neonates (<24h old) | 20 ± 2°C; 16:8 hr L:D; QDs weathered for 24 hr in sunlight; 48 hr static exposure | Increased immobilization post UV exposure | 0.263 mg/L EC20 (pre), 0.526 mg/L EC20 (post), | 0.282 to 0.75 mg/L | Cadmium ion | Silva et al. 2016 |
| CdSe/CdZnS | PAA-EG | Arabidopsis thaliana | - | 23°C; 12:12 hr L:D; 75% humidity | Leaf chlorosis; QD translocation to leaves | 10 μg/mL | - | Ions and particles | Koo et al., 2015 |
| CdSe/CdZnS | PEI | Arabidopsis thaliana | - | 23°C; 12:12 hr L:D; 75% humidity | Leaf chlorosis; decreased leaf size; QD translocation to leaves | 10 μg/mL | - | Ions and particles | Koo et al., 2015 |
| CdSe/CdZnS | PAA-EG | Caterpillar (Trichoplusia ni) | Newly hatched | 23°C; 24 hr continuous light; 50% humidity; 7-day exposure | Reduced weight gain; trophic transfer of QDs | 10 μg/mL | - | Ions and particles | Koo et al., 2015 |
| CdSe/CdZnS | PEI | Caterpillar (Trichoplusia ni) | Newly hatched | 23°C; 24 hr continuous light; 50% humidity; 7-day exposure | Reduced weight gain; trophic transfer of QDs | 10 μg/mL | - | Ions and particles | Koo et al., 2015 |
| CdTe | TGA | Diatom (Phaeodactylum tricornutum) | Inoculated fresh stock | 21 ± 1°C; pH 7.5; seawater; 6-day exposure | Decreased growth rate; internalization of QDs; increased Cd internal concentration | 200 ng/mL Cd | 100–300 ng/mL Cd | Cadmium Ion | Xu et al., 2010 |
| CdTe | COOH | Protozoan (Paramecium caudatum) | - | 22°C; 24 hr D; 24–72 hr exposure | Bioaccumulation of QDs; biomagnification of QDs through trophic transfer (BMF= 1.1–1.4); decreased bacterial grazing ability with increasing exposure; decreased reproductive potential; decreased growth rate | 25 mg/L | 25–75 mg/L | Particles | Gupta et al., 2017 |
| CdTe | TGA | Freshwater polyp (Hydra vulgaris) | 3 wks old with 1–2 buds | 18°C; 12:12 hr L:D; pH 7; 24, 48, and 72 hr exposures | Impaired reproduction (budding rate); impaired regenerative capability; decreased reproduction; decreased cell proliferation; increased apoptosis | 0.4 mg/L Cd | 1–100nM QD (0.04– 4.0 mg/L Cd) | Particles | Ambrosone et al., 2012 |
| CdTe | TGA | Freshwater mussel (Elliptio complanate) | Adults | 15°C; 24 hr static exposure | Altered Metallothionein concentrations in gill, digestive gland, and gonads; Accumulation of Cd in gills and digestive tissues | 1.6 mg/L Cd | 0– 8 mg Cd/L | Cadmium ion | Peyrot et al., 2009 |
| CdTe | TGA | Freshwater mussel (Elliption complanate) | Mature, 5–7cm shell length | 15°C; 8:16 hr L:D; Freshwater; static 24h exposure | Oxidative stress through ncreased LPO in gills; reduced phagocytic activity and hemocyte viability; genotoxicity through increased DNA strand breaks; increasing aggregation of QDs in FW | 1.6 mg/L | 1.6–8 mg/L | Cadmium ions and nanoparticles | Gagne et al., 2008 |
| CdTe | COOH | Mussel (Mytilus galloprovincialis) | Adults | 16.6°C; 12:12 hr L:D; 36‰ salinity; 14 day; static-renewal | Cd accumulation in gonads; decreased superoxide dismutase, catalase, and glutathione-S-transferase activity; increased glutathione peroxidase activity; metallothionein induction in females; increased lipid peroxidation | 10 μg/L QD | - | Cadmium ion and nanoparticle | Gonçalves et al. 2020 |
| CdTe | Ala and Gly | Domestic Silk Moth (Bombyx mori) | 48-h-old 5th instar | 25°C; 12:12 hr L:D; 70–90% humidity; Single 10 uL QD injection; 6–120 hr sampling time | Cytotoxicity, oxidative stress, and reproductive impairment; Increased ROS in gonads; Increased apoptosis and autophagy; decreased sperm production and quality; reduced fertilization rate; sex-specific toxicity differences | 0.32 nmol QD | 0.32–0.64 nmol QD | Ions and particles | Yan et al., 2016 |
| CdTe | GSH | Freshwater macrophyte (Lemna minor) | - | OECD test 221; 24 ± 2°C; pH 6.8 ± 0.1; 7-day exposure | Inhibited growth rate and biomass | 0.03 mg/L Cd | 0.01–15 mg/L | Cadmium ions | Modlitbová et al., 2018a |
| CdTe | MPA | Freshwater macrophyte (Lemna minor) | - | OECD test 221; 24 ± 2°C; pH 6.8 ± 0.1; 7-day exposure | Inhibited growth rate and biomass: cadmium bioaccumulation | 0.02 mg/L Cd | 0.01–15 mg/L | Cadmium ions | Modlitbová et al., 2018a |
| CdTe | - | Onion (Allium cepa) | 1–2 g bulbs | 22 ± 1°C; 15:9 hr L:D; 24 and 72 hr exposures | Lower root growth; cadmium dissolution and uptake in roots | 30 μm | 30–100 μm Cd | Cadmium ions | Modlitbová et al., 2018b |
| CdTe/ZnS | - | Onion (Allium cepa) | 1–2 g bulbs | 22 ± 1°C; 15:9 hr L:D; 24 and 72 hr exposures | Low particle dissolution and cadmium uptake; particles adsorbed on roots | >100 μm | 30–100 μm Cd | - | Modlitbová et al., 2018b |
| CdTe/CdS/ZnS | - | Onion (Allium cepa) | 1–2 g bulbs | 22 ± 1°C; 15:9 hr L:D; 24 and 72 hr exposures | Lower root growth; cadmium dissolution and uptake in roots | 30 μm | 30–100 μm Cd | Cadmium ions | Modlitbová et al., 2018b |
| CdTe | MPA | Wheat seedlings (Triticum aestivum) | 5 day old | 25°C; 8:16 hr L:D; 5-day exposure | Decreased root and shoot growth; increased lipid oxidation; increased MDA | 25 mg/L QD | 25–400 mg/L QD | Ions and particles | Chen et al., 2014 |
| CdTe | MPA | Wheat seedlings (Triticum aestivum) | 5 day old | 25°C; 8:16 hr L:D; UV-B radiation (10 KJ/m2/d); 5 day exposure | Inceased apoptosis and DNA damage; decreased chlorophyll a and b; increased ROS; increased SOD and dehydroascorbate activity; decreased CAT, ascorbate peroxidase, and glutahtione peroxidase activity; increased Cd accumulation in roots; reduced plant height and root length; increased release of Cd | 200 mg/L QD | - | Ions and particles | Chen et al., 2014 |
| CdTe/ CdS | COOH | Freshwater algae (Chlamydomonas reinhardtii) | - | 25 ± 1°C; 14:10 hr L:D; freshwater; 96 hr exposure | Reduced growth; synergistic effects with Cd ion co-exposure which increased cytotoxicity | 3.571 mg/L QD | 0.5–6 mg/L QD | Ions and particles | Yu et al., 2018 |
| CdTe/CdS | TGA | Diatom (Phaeodactylum tricornutum) | - | 21 ± 1°C; pH 7.5; seawater; 6-day exposure | Decreased growth rate; increased Cd internal concentration | 300 ng/mL Cd | 100–300 ng/mL Cd | Cadmium Ion | Xu et al., 2010 |
| CdTe/SiO2 | TGA | Diatom (Phaeodactylum tricornutum) | - | 21 ± 1°C; pH 7.5; seawater; 6-day exposure | Decreased growth rate; increased Cd internal concentration | 300 ng/mL Cd | 100–300 ng/mL Cd | Cadmium Ion | Xu et al., 2010 |
| CdTe/ZnS | TGA | Diatom (Phaeodactylum tricornutum) | - | 21 ± 1°C; pH 7.5; seawater; 6-day exposure | Increased Cd internal concentration | >300 ng/mL Cd | 100–300 ng/mL Cd | Cadmium Ion | Xu et al., 2010 |
| Non-metal QDs | |||||||||
| InZnP | GSH | Human | skin cells | 37°C; 24 hr exposure; UV weathered and pristine QDs | Increased mortality from weathered QDs; reduced cell proliferation; | >200 nM pristine QD | 6.25–200 nM Qd | Ions and secondary degradation products | Tarantini et al., 2019 |
| InZnP/ ZnS | PEN | Human | skin cells | 37°C; 24 hr exposure; UV weathered and pristine QDs | Increased mortality from weathered QDs; reduced cell proliferation; | 6.25 nM weathered QD; >200 nM pristine QD | 6.25–200 nM QD | Ions and secondary degradation products | Tarantini et al., 2019 |
| InZnP/ ZnS | GSH | Human | skin cells | 37°C; 24 hr exposure; UV weathered and pristine QDs | Increased mortality from weathered QDs; reduced cell proliferation; | 6.25 nM weathered QD; >200 nM pristine QD | 6.25–200 Nm QD | Ions and secondary degradation products | Tarantini et al., 2019 |
| InZnPS | PEN | Human | skin cells | 37°C; 24 hr exposure; UV weathered and pristine QDs | Increased mortality from weathered QDs; reduced cell proliferation; reduced metabolic activity | 12.5 nM weathered QD; 50 nM pristine QD | 6.25–200 Nm QD | Ions and secondary degradation products | Tarantini et al., 2019 |
| InZnPS | GSH | Human | skin cells | 37°C; 24 hr exposure; UV weathered and pristine QDs | Increased mortality from weathered QDs; reduced cell proliferation; | 12.5 nM weathered QD; >200 nM pristine QD | 6.25–200 nm QD | Ions and secondary degradation products | Tarantini et al., 2019 |
| InZnPS/ ZnS | PEN | Human | skin cells | 37°C; 24 hr exposure; UV weathered and pristine QDs | Increased mortality from weathered QDs; reduced cell proliferation; | 12.5 nM weathered QD; >200 nM pristine QD | 6.25–200 Nm QD | Ions and secondary degradation products | Tarantini et al., 2019 |
| InZnPS/ ZnS | GSH | Human | skin cells | 37°C; 24 hr exposure; UV weathered and pristine QDs | Increased mortality from weathered QDs; reduced cell proliferation; | 12.5 nM weathered QD; >200 nM pristine QD | 6.25–200 nM QD | Ions and secondary degradation products | Tarantini et al., 2019 |
| Silicon QD | sulfonate | Zebrafish (Danio rerio) | embryos (26 hpf) | 28°C; 120 hr exposure; co-exposure with 450 nm blue LED light for 6 hr |
Blue light increased silicon QD toxicity; increased malformation and mortality rate; | 40 mg/L | 10–50 mg/L QD | Srivastava et al., 2019 | |
| Carbon-based QDs | |||||||||
| CQDa | - | Phytoplankton (Scenedesmus obliquus) | - | 25 ± 2°C; 12:12 hr L:D; 24– 96 hr exposure | Oxidative stress and ROS formation; increased LPO and SOD activity; growth inhibition; reduced chlorophyll a | 50 mg/L QD | 5–500 mg/L QD | Yao et al., 2018 | |
| GOQDb | - | Green Algae (Chlorella vulgaris) | - | 24 ± 0.5°C; 24–96 hr exposure | Oxidative stress and ROS formation; increased SOD activity; increased cell permeability; reduced mitochondrial membrane potential; altered cell morphology; inhibited cell division; | 0.01 mg/L | 0.01–10 mg/L | Nanoparticles | Ouyang et al., 2015 |
| GQDc | - | Zebrafish (Danio rerio) | 4hpf | 28°C; 14:10 hr L:D; 7-day exposure | Upregulation of inflammatory and detoxifying genes; induction of AP-1 transcription factor for downstream regulation; activated acute inflammatory responses and redox signaling pathway; increased apoptosis | 25 ug/mL | 0–100 μg/mL | GQD particles | Deng et al., 2018 |
| GQDc | reduced | Zebrafish (Danio rerio) | Adult | 26 ± 0.5°C; 12:12 hr L:D; static exposure renewed daily; 7-day exposure; 14-day recovery | Increased DNA methylation in gill, liver, and intestines; increased DNA methylation in liver and intestine after recovery period | 2 mg/L QD | 2–50 mg/L QD | Particles | Hu et al., 2018 |
| GQDc | hydroxylated (OH) | Zebrafish (Danio rerio) | Adult | 26 ± 0.5°C; 12:12 hr L:D; static exposure renewed daily; 7-day exposure; 14-day recovery | Increased DNA methylation in gill, liver, and intestines | 2 mg/L QD | 2–50 mg/L QD | Particles | Hu et al., 2018 |
| GQDc | aminated (NH2) | Zebrafish (Danio rerio) | Adult | 26 ± 0.5°C; 12:12 hr L:D; static exposure renewed daily; 7-day exposure; 14-day recovery | Increased DNA methylation in gill, liver, and intestines; increased DNA methylation in liver and intestine after recovery period | 2 mg/L QD | 2–50 mg/L QD | Particles | Hu et al., 2018 |
MPEG-SH= Thiol-terminated methyl polyethylene glycol, GSH= glutathione, COOH= carboxylic acid, PMAO= polyanionic polymaleic anhydride-alt-1-octadecene, PEI= polycationic polyethylenimine, MPA= 3-mercaptopropyltrimethoxysilane, PSMA= poly(styrene-co-maleic anhydride), MPA= mercaptopropionic acid, MSA= mercaptosuccinic acid, PEG= polyethylene glycol, NH2= aminated, PAA= polyacrylic acid, EG= ethylene glycol, GA= gum arabic, TGA= thioglycolic acid, Ala= alanine, Gly = glycine, PEN= D-penicillamine
a
Carbon Quantum Dot,
b
Graphene Oxide Quantum Dot,
c
Graphene Quantum Dot