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. 2022 Feb 8;5(1):129–146. doi: 10.20517/cdr.2021.102

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© The Author(s) 2022.

© The Author(s) 2022. Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, for any purpose, even commercially, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made.

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A schematic figure of KRAS-driven signaling pathways in the regulation of immunomodulators. PI3K: Phosphatidylinositol-4,5-bisphosphate 3-kinase catalytic subunit alpha; AKT: serine/threonine kinase; MAPK: mitogen-activated protein kinase 1; ERK: extracellular signal-regulated kinase 2; PFK: phosphofructokinase; HIF1α: hypoxia inducible factor 1 subunit alpha; JNK: mitogen-activated protein kinase 8; mTOR: mechanistic target of rapamycin kinase; LDHA/B: lactate dehydrogenase A/B; YAP: yes1 associated transcriptional regulator; IRF2: interferon regulatory factor 2; STAT3: signal transducer and activator of transcription 3; NF-κB: transcription factor P65; MHCs: major histocompatibility complex.