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. 2022 Apr 8;13:150. doi: 10.1186/s13287-022-02829-9

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© The Author(s) 2022

Open AccessThis article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/. The Creative Commons Public Domain Dedication waiver (http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/) applies to the data made available in this article, unless otherwise stated in a credit line to the data.

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Fig. 1 — Interaction between immune cells and CSCs in the immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment. a CSCs impair recruiting and maturation of DCs in tumor sites or use TGF-β signaling to induce DC differentiation into DCregs. b CSCs-derived TGF-β/CCLs induce the differentiation of M1 macrophage to M2 phenotype ones vs. M2 macrophages induce EMT and stemness in CSCs. c CSCs-derived TGF-β recruits MDSCs in tumor sites and reciprocally, MDSCs support CSCs stemness and propagation. d CSCs-derived TGF-β also recruits Tregs in tumor sites and reciprocally, Tregs-derived VEGF induces angiogenesis supporting CSCs survival and EMT. e PD-L1 + CSCs suppress T cells activation or induce their differentiation into Tregs-supporting tumors. f CSCs-derived IL-6 and TGF-β downregulate NK-activating receptors, and also, CSCs suppress NK cells activation through re-expression of MHC-II or shedding of MIC A/B and CD155-suppressing activating receptors