. 2021 Sep 23;10(3):722–730. doi: 10.1556/2006.2021.00064

Table 4.

Association between parent-child relationship, parental supervision and discipline styles and gaming disorder (n = 2084 students)

Parent-child relationship score	Model 1^a	Model 2^b	Model 3^c
Parent-child relationship score	0.30 [0.19, 0.46]	0.36 [0.21, 0.61]	0.36 [0.21, 0.62]
Parental supervision and discipline styles
Supervision, Non-violent discipline	1.0 (Ref)	1.0 (Ref)	1.0 (Ref)
Supervision, Psychological aggression	1.72	1.59	1.63
Supervision, Psychological aggression	[1.19, 2.48]	[1.35, 1.87]	[1.40, 1.90]
Supervision, Physical punishment	5.33	4.66	4.60
Supervision, Physical punishment	[1.58, 17.93]	[1.39, 15.66]	[1.26, 16.80]
Supervision, Severe physical punishment	11.82	7.76	8.10
Supervision, Severe physical punishment	[5.07, 27.54]	[2.50, 24.11]	[3.92, 16.73]
Supervision, non-discipline	12.65	8.05	8.12
Supervision, non-discipline	[10.72, 14.93]	[5.97, 10.85]	[5.91, 11.16]
Non-supervision	11.38	9.52	8.86
Non-supervision	[3.67, 35.23]	[4.06, 22.30]	[7.41, 10.61]

^a Model 1. Crude OR [95% CI].

^b Model 2. Adjusted OR [95% CI], adjusted for the co-exposure (parental supervision and discipline style or parent-child relationship score).

^c Model 3. Adjusted OR [95% CI], adjusted for all variables in Model 2 + potential confounders (gender, place of residence, ownership of electronic devices, household wealth, perceived health-risk behaviors among family members, perceived health-risk behaviors among friends, grade/year level and school type).