Table 4.

Modern infectious disease prevention and intervention.

Pandemic	Years	Source	Main Actions	Current Prevention	References
Yellow fever	1900	Mosquito	Travel limitation in areas affected by yellow fever. Yellow fever control strategies include insecticide spraying, larval control including larvicide spraying, and bacterial toxins	Vaccine valid for 10 years	[108,109]
SARS-CoV	2002–2004	Bats, palm civets	During the viral incubation period (4–5 days), which is important for the prevention and control of the disease, there are no clinical symptoms	One of the treatment modalities used to reduce the replication of the virus and its spread is passive immunization with monoclonal antibodies	[110]
MERS-CoV	2012	Dromedary camels	Prevention includes washing hands often, cleaning surfaces regularly with an alcohol-based cleaner,	Interferons (IFNs). Different vaccines targeting SARS-CoV and MERS-CoV have been developed and tested in preclinical models. However, only a few of them have gone into clinical trials, and none of them have been approved by the FDA.
			covering mouth and nose with a tissue when coughing or sneezing	The different vaccines include protein subunit vaccines (RBD-based vaccine), virus-like particle vaccines, DNA vaccines, viral vector vaccines, inactivated vaccines, and live attenuated vaccines
A/H1N1	2009	Pigs	Reducing the risk of human-to-human transmission: isolation and quarantine of infected patients. Use of the surgical template. Hand hygiene is the most important measure to reduce the risk of transmission. Hands should be washed frequently with soap and water, alcohol-based cloths, or antiseptic. Cleaning of contaminated surfaces or equipment should be performed with phenolic disinfectants, ammonia compounds, or alcohol	Antiviral drugs, including adamantanes (amantadine, rimantadine) and neuraminidase inhibitors (zanamivir, oseltamivir, peramivir, and laninamivir) are used to treat cases of influenza, even if they have side effects; antibiotics for the treatment or prevention of secondary bacterial pneumonia; parenteral nutrition; oxygen therapy or ventilatory support and vasopressors for shock. Vaccines: for subjects between the ages of 3 and 77. The immunization schedule consisted of two vaccinations, 21 days apart	[111,112]
Ebola	2013–2016	Bats, NHPs, and small terrestrial mammals	Reducing the risk of wildlife-to-human: avoiding contact with infected fruit bats or monkeys/apes and the consumption of their raw meat.	Combination of three mono-clonal antibodies directed against the envelope glycoprotein (GP) of EBOV, liposomal-formulated interfering RNA, and inhibitors of RNA polymerase.	[113,114]
			Reducing the risk of human-to-human transmission: avoiding direct or close contact with people with Ebola symptoms, particularly with their bodily fluids. Gloves and appropriate personal protective equipment should be worn when taking care of ill patients at home. Regular hand washing is required after visiting patients in hospital, as well as after taking care of patients at home	Two main vaccines have proved efficacious in preventing Ebola infection. Both vaccines express GP as the single EBOV component and are virally vectored in chimpanzee adenovirus and vesicular stomatitis virus (rVSV), respectively
			Outbreak containment measure: prompt and safe burial of the dead, identifying people who may have been in contact with someone infected with Ebola, monitoring the health of contacts for 21 days, the importance of separating the healthy from the sick to prevent further spread, the importance of good hygiene and maintaining a clean environment
SARS-CoV-2	2019	Probably from bats	Several practices are recommended with the aim to limit further transmission; they include handwashing, hand disinfection, wearing of face masks and gloves, disinfection of surfaces, and physical distance	Conservative fluid therapy and broad-spectrum antibiotics are given to patients as a protective measure to avoid opportunistic bacterial infections. However, ventilator support for respiration is provided to patients under extreme conditions.	[115,116]
				Numerous FDA-approved antiviral drugs, plasma therapy, vaccines (live attenuated vaccine (LAV), inactivated virus, subunit vaccines, monoclonal antibody vaccine, virus vectors, protein vaccines, and DNA/RNA-based vaccines), and immunotherapies