. 2022 Apr 11;64(2):249–278. doi: 10.1007/s13644-022-00487-0

Table 3.

Coefficients from Ordinal Logistic Regression Models Predicting Self-Rated Health by Spiritual Struggles and Religious Discussion, CHAPS (N = 1,711, odds ratios and 95% confidence intervals shown)

	Model 1	Model 2	Model 3
Religious/Spiritual Struggles (index)	0.65*** (0.57–0.74)	0.66*** (0.58–0.75)	0.67*** (0.52–0.86)
Religious Discussion
Less than once a month^a		0.86 (0.66–1.12)	0.96 (0.49–1.87)
Once a week or less^a		1.35* (1.01–1.80)	1.29 (0.63–2.64)
Several times a week or more^a		1.65** (1.19–2.27)	1.85 (0.83–4.13)
Religious/Spiritual Struggles*Religious Discussion
Struggles * Less than once a month^a			0.94 (0.68–1.31)
Struggles * Once a week or less^a			1.01 (0.72–1.43)
Struggles * Several times a week or more^a			0.80* (0.61–0.97)
Control Variables
Age
30–44 years^b	0.83 (0.60–1.14)	0.84 (0.61–1.17)	0.85 (0.61–1.16)
45–59 years^b	0.56** (0.39–0.80)	0.56** (0.39–1.27)	0.56** (0.39–0.80)
60 years or older^b	0.62** (0.44–0.88)	0.63* (0.44–0.90)	0.64* (0.45–0.91)
Race
Black, non-Hispanic^c	0.88 (0.65–1.22)	0.85 (0.61–1.17)	0.85 (0.61–1.16)
Hispanic^c	0.99 (0.76–1.29)	0.97 (0.74–1.27)	0.96 (0.74–1.26)
Other Race^c	0.90 (0.60–1.37)	0.91 (0.60–1.37)	0.90 (0.60–1.36)
Gender
Female^d	0.99 (0.82–1.18)	0.98 (0.81–1.17)	0.97 (0.81–1.16)
Educational Attainment
HS graduate or equivalent^e	1.25 (0.71–2.18)	1.23 (0.71–2.14)	1.24 (0.71–2.16)
Vocational/tech school/some college/Associates degree^e	1.20 (0.71–2.05)	1.19 (0.70–2.01)	1.19 (0.70–2.02)
Bachelor’s degree^e	1.74* (1.01–3.03)	1.74* (1.01–3.01)	1.74* (1.01–3.03)
Post grad study/professional degree^e	2.08* (1.16–3.71)	2.03* (1.14–3.62)	2.07* (1.16–3.69)
Income
$30,000 -$60,000^f	1.53** (1.18–1.99)	1.56*** (1.20–2.03)	1.56** (1.20–2.04)
$60,000 to under $100,000^f	1.77*** (1.34–2.35)	1.82 (1.37–2.40)	1.83*** (1.38–2.42)
$100,000 or more^f	2.26*** (1.66–3.08)	2.30*** (1.69–3.13)	2.31*** (1.70–3.14)
Unemployed due to COVID-19	0.77* (0.61–0.97)	0.77* (0.60–0.97)	0.76* (0.61–0.97)
Marital Status
Widowed^g	1.11 (0.71–1.75)	1.13 (0.72–1.79)	1.13 (0.72–1.79)
Divorced^g	0.96 (0.70–1.32)	1.00 (0.73–1.37)	0.99 (0.73–1.36)
Separated^g	0.95 (0.59–1.54)	0.97 (0.60–1.57)	0.97 (0.60–1.56)
Never married^g	0.79 (0.60–1.03)	0.81 (0.61–1.07)	0.81 (0.61–1.07)
Living with partner^g	0.65* (0.43–0.99)	0.70 (0.46–1.06)	0.70 (0.46–1.06)
Region of United States
Midwest^h	0.93 (0.69–1.24)	0.91 (0.68–1.22)	0.91 (0.68–1.22)
South^h	1.19 (0.90–1.59)	1.15 (0.86–1.53)	1.14 (0.86–1.52)
West^h	0.99 (0.73–1.34)	0.97 (0.72–1.32)	0.97 (0.72–1.32)
Religious Controls
Religious Attendance during pandemic
Attended about the same as before the pandemicⁱ	0.54 (0.26–1.10)	0.64 (0.32–1.31)	0.66 (0.33–1.33)
Attended less oftenⁱ	0.52 (0.26–1.04)	0.57 (0.28–1.15)	0.58 (0.29–1.16)
Religious Importance
About the same as before the pandemic^j	0.95 (0.74–1.23)	1.06 (0.82–1.37)	1.07 (0.85–1.40)
Religion has become less Important^j	0.86 (0.55–1.35)	1.00 (0.64–1.58)	1.02 (0.68–1.59)
Religious Affiliation
Mainline Protestant^k	0.96 (0.71–1.30)	1.10 (0.80–1.50)	1.10 (0.81–1.50)
Catholic^k	1.20 (0.91–1.61)	1.41* (1.04–1.90)	1.42* (1.05–1.91)
Other Christian^k	1.16 (0.85–1.58)	1.36 (0.99–1.86)	1.36 (0.99–1.86)
Other Religion^k	1.33 (0.82–2.14)	1.61 (0.99–2.62)	1.62 (0.99–2.63)
No religion^k	0.71* (0.53–0.96)	0.87 (0.64–1.58)	0.87 (0.64–1.18)
McFadden Pseudo R²	0.04	0.05	0.05

Model 1

Model 2

Model 3

Religious/Spiritual Struggles (index)

0.65***

(0.57–0.74)

0.66***

(0.58–0.75)

0.67***

(0.52–0.86)

Religious Discussion

Less than once a month^a

0.86

(0.66–1.12)

0.96

(0.49–1.87)

Once a week or less^a

1.35*

(1.01–1.80)

1.29

(0.63–2.64)

Several times a week or

more^a

1.65**

(1.19–2.27)

1.85

(0.83–4.13)

Religious/Spiritual Struggles*Religious Discussion

Struggles * Less than once

a month^a

0.94

(0.68–1.31)

Struggles * Once a week or

less^a

1.01

(0.72–1.43)

Struggles * Several times a

week or more^a

0.80*

(0.61–0.97)

Control Variables

Age

30–44 years^b

0.83

(0.60–1.14)

0.84

(0.61–1.17)

0.85

(0.61–1.16)

45–59 years^b

0.56**

(0.39–0.80)

0.56**

(0.39–1.27)

0.56**

(0.39–0.80)

60 years or older^b

0.62**

(0.44–0.88)

0.63*

(0.44–0.90)

0.64*

(0.45–0.91)

Race

Black, non-Hispanic^c

0.88

(0.65–1.22)

0.85

(0.61–1.17)

0.85

(0.61–1.16)

Hispanic^c

0.99

(0.76–1.29)

0.97

(0.74–1.27)

0.96

(0.74–1.26)

Other Race^c

0.90

(0.60–1.37)

0.91

(0.60–1.37)

0.90

(0.60–1.36)

Gender

Female^d

0.99

(0.82–1.18)

0.98

(0.81–1.17)

0.97

(0.81–1.16)

Educational Attainment

HS graduate or equivalent^e

1.25

(0.71–2.18)

1.23

(0.71–2.14)

1.24

(0.71–2.16)

Vocational/tech school/some

college/Associates degree^e

1.20

(0.71–2.05)

1.19

(0.70–2.01)

1.19

(0.70–2.02)

Bachelor’s degree^e

1.74*

(1.01–3.03)

1.74*

(1.01–3.01)

1.74*

(1.01–3.03)

Post grad study/professional

degree^e

2.08*

(1.16–3.71)

2.03*

(1.14–3.62)

2.07*

(1.16–3.69)

Income

$30,000 -$60,000^f

1.53**

(1.18–1.99)

1.56***

(1.20–2.03)

1.56**

(1.20–2.04)

$60,000 to under $100,000^f

1.77***

(1.34–2.35)

1.82

(1.37–2.40)

1.83***

(1.38–2.42)

$100,000 or more^f

2.26***

(1.66–3.08)

2.30***

(1.69–3.13)

2.31***

(1.70–3.14)

Unemployed due to COVID-19

0.77*

(0.61–0.97)

0.77*

(0.60–0.97)

0.76*

(0.61–0.97)

Marital Status

Widowed^g

1.11

(0.71–1.75)

1.13

(0.72–1.79)

1.13

(0.72–1.79)

Divorced^g

0.96

(0.70–1.32)

1.00

(0.73–1.37)

0.99

(0.73–1.36)

Separated^g

0.95

(0.59–1.54)

0.97

(0.60–1.57)

0.97

(0.60–1.56)

Never married^g

0.79

(0.60–1.03)

0.81

(0.61–1.07)

0.81

(0.61–1.07)

Living with partner^g

0.65*

(0.43–0.99)

0.70

(0.46–1.06)

0.70

(0.46–1.06)

Region of United States

Midwest^h

0.93

(0.69–1.24)

0.91

(0.68–1.22)

0.91

(0.68–1.22)

South^h

1.19

(0.90–1.59)

1.15

(0.86–1.53)

1.14

(0.86–1.52)

West^h

0.99

(0.73–1.34)

0.97

(0.72–1.32)

0.97

(0.72–1.32)

Religious Controls

Religious Attendance during pandemic

Attended about the same as

before the pandemicⁱ

0.54

(0.26–1.10)

0.64

(0.32–1.31)

0.66

(0.33–1.33)

Attended less oftenⁱ

0.52

(0.26–1.04)

0.57

(0.28–1.15)

0.58

(0.29–1.16)

Religious Importance

About the same as before

the pandemic^j

0.95

(0.74–1.23)

1.06

(0.82–1.37)

1.07

(0.85–1.40)

Religion has become less

Important^j

0.86

(0.55–1.35)

1.00

(0.64–1.58)

1.02

(0.68–1.59)

Religious Affiliation

Mainline Protestant^k

0.96

(0.71–1.30)

1.10

(0.80–1.50)

1.10

(0.81–1.50)

Catholic^k

1.20

(0.91–1.61)

1.41*

(1.04–1.90)

1.42*

(1.05–1.91)

Other Christian^k

1.16

(0.85–1.58)

1.36

(0.99–1.86)

1.36

(0.99–1.86)

Other Religion^k

1.33

(0.82–2.14)

1.61

(0.99–2.62)

1.62

(0.99–2.63)

No religion^k

0.71*

(0.53–0.96)

0.87

(0.64–1.58)

0.87

(0.64–1.18)

McFadden Pseudo R²

0.04

0.05

Notes. *** p < .001, ** p < .01, * p < .05

a. compared to Never discusses religion

b. compared to 18–29 years

c. compared to White, non-Hispanic

d. compared to Male

e. compared to Less than high school

f. compared to $30,000 or less

g. compared to Married

h. compared to Northeast region

i. compared to Attended more often

j. compared to Religion became more important

k. compared to Conservative Protestant