Table 2.
Univariate Analysis Between Race/Ethnicity and Experienced/Perceived Racial Discrimination and Mental Health and Substance Use
| Race/ethnicity | Overall | p value | |||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Non-Hispanic White | Non-Hispanic Black | Hispanic | East Asian | South Asian | Southeast Asian | Other | |||
| Encountered discrimination, % (95% CI)* |
2.70 (1.23–4.16) |
19.27 (15.46–23.08) |
15.68 (11.31–20.06) |
22.46 (17.71–27.22) |
10.57 (5.09–16.06) |
16.84 (10.93–22.77) |
28.13 (15.76–40.5) |
8.81 (7.38–10.24) |
< 0.001 |
| Perceived racial bias, mean (95% CI)† |
1.51 (1.45–1.57) |
2.48 (2.41–2.55) |
2.09 (2.01–2.17) |
2.36 (2.29–2.43) |
1.82 (1.69–1.94) |
2.20 (2.08–2.32) |
2.14 (1.95–2.32) |
1.79 (1.74–1.84) |
< 0.001 |
| Encountered racial/ethnic cyberbully, % (95% CI)‡ |
6.54 (3.98–9.10) |
18.32 (14.30–22.32) |
16.98 (12.43–21.52) |
19.45 (15.25–23.67) |
15.11 (8.96–21.26) |
17.03 (11.42–22.64) |
10.42 (2.60–18.24) |
10.54 (8.67–12.40) |
< 0.001 |
| Psychological distress, % (95% CI)§ |
13.96 (10.28–17.64) |
15.93 (12.15–19.72) |
22.62 (17.78–27.46) |
12.02 (8.87–15.17) |
22.61 (15.57–29.66) |
29.68 (21.63–37.72) |
13.82 (3.34–24.29) |
15.90 (13.42–18.39) |
< 0.001 |
| Poor sleep quality, % (95% CI) |
11.88 (8.60–15.17) |
16.49 (12.68–20.29) |
18.31 (13.73–22.89) |
11.44 (7.64–15.23) |
7.16 (3.26–11.06) |
8.15 (4.39–11.90) |
24.53 (11.27–37.79) |
13.84 (11.55–16.11) |
0.009 |
| Decrease in happiness, % (95% CI) ¶ |
57.87 (52.82–62.92) |
54.68 (49.75–59.61) |
56.71 (51.15–62.27) |
61.26 (55.87–66.66) |
55.73 (47.10–64.37) |
54.00 (45.33–62.68) |
64.05 (51.00–77.11) |
57.51 (54.17–60.84) |
0.247 |
| Increase in cigarette smoking, % (95% CI) # |
9.06 (6.13–11.98) |
19.89 (15.78–24.01) |
14.64 (10.47–18.82) |
4.59 (2.69–6.48) |
12.76 (6.55–18.96) |
8.43 (3.52–13.34) |
15.19 (5.07–25.30) |
11.40 (9.36–13.44) |
< 0.001 |
| Increase in alcohol consumption, % (95% CI)** |
21.40 (17.28–25.54) |
32.51 (27.89–37.13) |
34.33 (28.99–39.69) |
16.25 (11.92–20.57) |
23.32 (16.02–30.61) |
14.69 (7.78–21.60) |
40.91 (26.48–55.34) |
25.36 (22.52–28.19) |
< 0.001 |
| Sample size, n | 514 | 590 | 529 | 518 | 187 | 219 | 94 | 2709 | |
All statistics are weighted
*Pearson chi-square test shows a significant association between race/ethnicity and experiencing racial discrimination during the pandemic
†ANOVA test shows that the scale of concern for racism against one’s race/ethnicity differs significantly between different racial/ethnic groups. This scale is constructed by summing up the responses to the following eight questions: a. [I believe the country has become more dangerous for people in my racial/ethnic group because of the coronavirus; b. [People of my race/ethnicity are more likely to lose their job because of the coronavirus]; c. [I worry about people thinking I have the coronavirus simply because of my race/ethnicity]; d. [Most social and mass media reports about the coronavirus create bias against people of my racial/ethnic group]; e. [People of my race/ethnicity are more likely to get the coronavirus]; f. [People of my race/ethnicity will not receive coronavirus healthcare as good as the care received by other groups]; g. [Since the coronavirus I have seen a lot more cyberbullying of people of my race/ethnicity]; h. [Negative social media posts against people of my race/ethnicity have increased because of the coronavirus]
‡Pearson chi-square test shows a significant association between race/ethnicity and experiencing racial/ethnic cyberbullying during the pandemic
§ANOVA test shows that distress differs significantly between different racial/ethnic groups
¶Pearson chi-square test shows an insignificant association between race/ethnicity and decrease in happiness
#Pearson chi-square test shows a significant association between race/ethnicity and increase in cigarette smoking
**Pearson chi-square test shows a significant association between race/ethnicity and increase in alcohol consumption