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Schematic diagram summarizing the proposed mechanisms related to the gut–kidney axis involved in the pathogenesis of chronic kidney disease and its comorbidities. LPS = lipopolysaccharide; Th17 = T-helper 17 cell; Th1 = T-helper 1 cell; TLR4 = toll-like receptor 4; NF-κB = nuclear factor kappa B; SCFA = short-chain fatty acid; IS = indoxyl sulfate; PCS = p-cresyl sulfate; AHR = aryl hydrocarbon receptor; TMA = trimethylamine; TMAO = trimethylamine-N-oxide.
