Table 1.
Summary of studies investigated links between gut microbiota and pediatric chronic kidney disease.
| Study | Study Population | Age (Years) | Alterations in Gut Microbiota and Metabolites |
|---|---|---|---|
| Crespo-Salgado et al., 2016 [83] | 8 HD, 8 PD, 10 transplant, 13 controls | Control: 9.5 (3–16), HD: 13.6 (8–17), PD: 11.9 (3–17), transplant: 13.2 (2–18) | ↓ Alpha diversity in PD and transplant ↓ Phyla Firmicutes and Actinobacteria but ↑ family Enterobacteriaceae in PD ↑ Phylum Bacteroidetes in HD ↑ Plasma levels of p-cresyl sulfate and indoxyl sulfate in HD and PD |
| Tsuji et al., 2018 [84] | 12 INS, 11 controls | Controls: 5.1, relapsing INS: 3, non-relapsing INS: 4.3 | ↓ Butyrate-producing bacteria belonging to Clostridium clusters IV and XIVa ↓ Fecal butyric acid level |
| Hsu et al., 2018 [85] | 60 CKD stage 1 26 CKD stage 2–3 |
11.3 (7.2–15.5) 11.3 (7.2–15.5) |
↓ Urinary levels of DMA and TMAO in CKD stage 2–3 vs. CKD stage 1 ↓ Genus Prevotella in CKD children with an abnormal ABPM profile |
| Hsu et al., 2019 [86] | 78 CKD stage 1–4 | 11.2 (7.4–15.2) | ↑ Plasma levels of propionic acid and butyric acid in CKD children with an abnormal ABPM profile ↑ Phylum Verrucomicrobia, genus Akkermansia, and species ↓ Bifidobacterium bifidum in CKD children with CAKUT |
| Kang et al., 2019 [87] | 20 INS | 3.5 ± 2.1 | ↑ Genera Romboutsia, Stomatobaculum and Cloacibacillus after 4-week initial therapy |
| Hsu et al., 2020 [88] | 115 CKD stage 1–4 | 11.3 (7.2–15.5) | ↑ Plasma levels of DMA, TMA, and TMAO in children with CKD stage 2–4 vs. CKD stage 1 ↓ Phylum Cyanobacteria, genera Subdoligranulum, Ruminococcus, Faecalibacterium, and Akkermansia in CKD children with an abnormal ABPM profile |
| Yamaguchi et al., 2021 [89] | 20 INS | INS with probiotics: 6.4 (3.7–10.6), INS without probiotics: 4.7 (3.5–7.8) | ↓ Butyrate-producing bacteria |
Data on age are presented as mean ± standard deviation or median (interquartile range); PD = peritoneal dialysis; HD = hemodialysis; CKD = chronic kidney disease; INS = idiopathic nephrotic syndrome; CAKUT = congenital anomalies of the kidney and urinary tract; DMA = dimethylamine; TMA = trimethylamine; TMAO = trimethylamine-N-oxide; ABPM = 24 h ambulatory blood pressure monitoring.