Table 1.
The efficacy of natural compounds in the treatment of BrCa.
| Natural Compound and Class |
Chemical Formulas | Source | Mechanism of Action | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Quercetin (flavonoid) | C15H10O7 | Allagopappus viscosissimus, Opuntia ficus-indica var. saboten, Lychnophora staavioides, and Rhamnus species | Programmed cell death and the cell cycle are promoted, and breast cancer stem cells (BCSCs) are kept from invasion | [45,53,55,81,82,83,84] |
| Tetrandrine (alkaloid) | C38H42N2O6 | Stephania tetrandra | Blocks positive ion channels, overcomes drug resistance, boosts autophagy, and triggers cell death | [61,62,65] |
| Thymoquinone (4-benzoquinone) | C10H12O2 | Nigella Sativa | Both p53-dependent and p53-independent mechanisms increase apoptosis; cell cycle arrest triggers p38 and ROS signaling; NF-κB is a tumor-suppressing protein. The peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR) activation pathway has improved, as has PPAR activity; phosphorylation of Akt, 4E-BP1, eIF4E, S6R, and p70S6K has decreased | [70,72,74,76,78,80] |
| Resveratrol (phytoalexin) | C14H12O3 | Polygonum cuspidatum | Encourages cell cycle arrest and death; prevents carcinogenesis, DNA damage, and cancer spread; Cells genetic and epigenetic profiles are altered, and COX activity is inhibited; NF-κB DNA’s binding activity is reduced, and cell viability, glucose ingesting, and ATP content are all reduced; TGFβ1 expression is suppressed; BCSC survival is reduced; Wnt/β-catenin signaling pathway is inhibited, resulting in autophagy; signaling between PI3K, Akt, and mTOR is suppressed | [85,86,87,88,89,90,91,92] |
| Honokiol (neolignan biphenols) | C18H18O2 | Magnolia grandiflora | Autophosphorylation inhibits angiogenesis, tumor cell proliferation, and programmed cell death; the PI3K/mTOR pathway governs immune resistance; inhibits angiogenesis, tumor cell proliferation, and death; suppresses Wnt1-MTA1-β-catenin signaling induced by leptin; STAT3 phosphorylation is reduced, and phospholipase D (PLD) activity is inhibited; induces cell cycle arrest and decreases mammosphere development, aldehyde dehydrogenases (ALDH) activity, and expression of iPSC inducers; EGFR is inhibited, and c-Src phosphorylation is suppressed | [93,94,95,96,97,98] |
| Garcinol (polyisoprenylated benzophenone) | C38H50O6, | Garcinia indica | Regulates the NF-κB signaling pathway; reduces histone acetyltransferases and ROS; induces cell cycle arrest; reverses EMT markers, and governs the β-catenin and Wnt signaling pathways | [99,100,101,102] |
| Biochanin A (flavonoid) | C16H12O5 | Trifolium pratense | Biochanin A inhibited the aromatase enzyme activity and prevented cell proliferation in MCF-7 cells that had been stably transfected with the CYP19 gene. Biochanin A was reported to reduce aromatase enzyme activity and mRNA expression in SK-BR3 cells (ER-negative BrCa cells) | [103,104,105] |
| Lycopene (tetraterpenoids) | C40H56 | Tomatoes, carrots, watermelon, papaya, and cherries all contain lycopene, a vivid red carotene pigment that belongs to the tetra terpenoids family | BrCa cells regulate several genes involved in DNA repair, cell cycle control, and apoptosis, making them potent antioxidants | [106,107,108] |
| Shikonin (hydroxy-1,4-naphthoquinone) | C16H16O5 | Lithospermum erythrorhizon’s root extract | Shikonin inhibits estrogen-encouraged cell production and initiates ER ubiquitination, promoting ER breakdown in ER-positive breast cells. It induces necroptosis-like death in ER-positive BrCa cells | [109,110] |
| Sulforaphane (isothiocyanate) | C6H11NOS2 | Broccoli, water lily, broccoli sprouts, cabbage, and kale | In BrCa cells, sulforaphane has been shown to prevent tubulin polymerization. It can cause both cell cycle detention and apoptosis in BrCa cells | [111,112] |
| Caffeic acid (phenolic compound) | C9H8O4 | Echinacea purpurea | Echinacea includes flavonoids, which stimulate the immune system. It boosts lymphocyte activity, which encourages macrophage phagocytosis and natural killer cell activity, triggering interferon assembly and minimizing the adverse effects of chemotherapy and radiation therapy. It also helps people extend their life expectancy as their cancer advances. Echinacea juice in commercial formulations has been demonstrated to increase macrophage cytokine production. The activation and proliferation of T-cells and B-cells has fewer apparent implications. Several components of echinacea have been shown to contribute to the immune system’s unique effects | [82,113] |
| Alliin, and Allicin (sulfoxide) | C6H11NO3S, C6H10OS2 | Allium sativum | Garlic’s anticancer benefits come from its high organic sulfides and polysulfides composition. The mechanisms of antitumor activity activating lymphocytes and macrophages are the destruction of malignant cells and interfering with tumor cell metabolism | [114] |
| Curcumin (flavonoid) | C21H20O6 | Curcuma longa | Curcuma longa (turmeric) gives food a dark yellow color. The active element in turmeric, curcumin, can be found in the rhizome and rootstock. Curcumin’s phenolic compounds have been demonstrated to have anticancer properties. Turmeric protects against lung, breast, skin, and stomach cancers | [114,115,116,117] |
| Luteolin (flavonoid) | C15H10O6 | Arctium lappa | Antioxidants of the flavonoid and polyphenol are found in burdock root, suppressing tumor growth. Root extract protects normal physiological cells from toxic substances and helps to prevent cell mutations. The most crucial active element in burdock is tannin, a phenolic substance. It activates macrophages, inhibits cancer spread, and maintains immune-modulatory capacities | [118,119] |
| Carotenoids (Tetraterpenoids) | C40H64 | Rosehips | Carotenoids are potent antioxidants with therapeutic properties, such as scavenging free radicals, protecting cells from oxidative stress, illuminating gap intersections, stimulating the immune system, and regulating enzyme activity, all of which contribute to cancer production and boost the body’s immune system activity | [120] |
| Epigallocatechin gallate (catechin) | C22H18O11 | Camellia sinensis | Green tea possesses cancer-fighting and antimutagenic properties. EGCG protects cells against DNA damage caused by reactive oxygen species. Green tea polyphenols, according to animal studies, inhibit cancer cell division and cause tumor cell necrosis and death | [121,122,123,124] |