Table 1.

Reported functions of saffron and its extracts in experimental trials.

Function	Experimental Findings	Reference
Diuretic agent	Doses of 120 and 240 mg/kg BW have been shown to have diuretic activity in rats, however, at lower activity than hydrochlorothiazide.	[13]
Analgesic agent	Safranal, ethanolic, and aqueous saffron extracts acted as analgesic agents in animal models.	[14]
	Aqueous saffron extracts reduced pain in rats during the chronic phase of formalin test, in a dose-dependant manner	[15]
Anti-nociceptive	Aqueous and ethanolic extracts of stigmas and petals reduced pain signaling from acetic acid-induced writhing.	[16]
Anti-inflammatory	Ethanolic saffron stigma extracts exhibited edema inhibition, with similar coagulation time to aspirin.	[17]
	Stigma extracts showed weak to moderate effect against acute xylene inflammation in mice. However, both stigmas and petal extracts exerted anti-inflammatory effects in edema-induced chronic inflammation in rats.	[16]
Anti-convulsant	Aqueous and ethanolic extracts of stigmas retarded the initiation and duration of tonic convulsions in mice.	[18]
Bronchodilatory	Concentrations varying between 4 and 16 mg/mL of saffranal had a preventive effect on the tracheal responses in guinea pigs	[19]
Secretagogues/anti-diabetes	A combination of resistance exercise and 40 mg/kg/day of saffron administration improved diabetes’ parameters, including insulin release and glucose uptake, in rats.	[20]
Hepatoprotective	20 mg/kg doses of saffron petal hydroalcoholic extracts reduced acetaminophen-induced liver toxicity in rats.	[21]
	100 mg/kg doses of saffron hydro- and alcoholic extracts prevented liver injury in rabbits with prolonged exposure to amiodarone.	[22]
	80 mg/kg ethanolic extracts of saffron significantly reduced hepathic injury biomarkers during exposure to rifampin.	[23]
Anti-carcinogenic	Aqueous saffron extracts achieved a chemopreventive effect in mice. However, this was not consistently dose dependant.	[24]
Neuroprotecive	A 6.5 mg/kg per os saffron extract reduced depressive-like behavior in mice during forced swimming. This was suggested to be related to increased monoaminergic neurotransmission activity.	[25]
	The 20, 40, and 80 μg/mL ethanolic saffron extracts increasingly significantly reversed 500-μM corticosterone-induced PC12 cell death. At 1280 μg/mL, extracts progressively increased cytotoxicity.	[26]
Withdrawal management	Daily doses of 60 mg/kg i.p. saffron extract reduced serverity of withdrawal manifestations in adult male rats.	[27]