Table 5.
Summary on covalent modification of cellulose micro- and nanomaterials via acylation with anhydrides of carboxylic acids and acyl chlorides for the preparation of composites with aliphatic polyesters.
| Type of Cellulose |
Modifying Agent(s) | Filler Content (wt%) |
Matrix Aliphatic Polyester |
Processing/ Design of Composites |
Characterization Methods | Refs. |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| CNF | Acetic anhydride |
1 or 2 | PCL/ Gelatin |
Electrospinning/ Nanofibrous scaffolds |
FTIR, SEM, WAXS, DSC, biodegradation, conductivity and mechanical tests | [149] |
| CNF | Acetic anhydride |
5 | PLA | Extrusion/Strands | FTIR, XRD, TGA, SEM, DMA, tensile and wettability tests | [150] |
| CNF | Acetic anhydride |
0.2–3 | PLA | Casting/Films | FTIR, UV, SEM, DSC, mechanical tests | [151] |
| CNF | Acetic, propionic or butyric anhydride | 2 | PLA | Casting/Films | ATR-IR, SEM, DSC, wettability, transmittance, transparency, and mechanical tests | [152] |
| CMF | Acetic anhydride |
1–20 | PLA/ PLA-EGMA |
Casting/Films | FTIR, XRD, TGA, optical microscopy, wettability and mechanical tests | [153] |
| Cellulose fibers | Acetic anhydride |
20, 30 or 40 | PLA | Extrusion + molding/ Films |
FTIR, TGA, kinetics study | [154] |
| CNC | Succinic anhydride |
1, 2 or 3 | PLA | Extrusion + molding/Films | FTIR, TEM, SEM, DSC and DMA | [155] |
| CNF | Maleic anhydride |
5–10 | PLA | Casting/Films | FTIR, XRD, SEM, TEM, TGA, mechanical tests | [156] |
| CNC | Maleic anhydride |
1, 3 or 5 | PLA | Casting/Films | FTIR, XPS, FE-SEM, DMA and tensile tests | [157] |
| CNC | Maleic anhydride and furan methylamine |
1 | PCL/TPU | Extrusion/Filaments | FTIR, shape memory, self-healing, conductivity study, molecular dynamics simulations | [158] |
| Mixture of celluloses and lignin fibers | Maleic anhydride or APTES | 5 | PLA | Extrusion + molding/ Films |
FTIR, SEM, EDX, wettability and mechanical tests | [159,160] |
| CMC | Butyryl or lauroyl chlorides |
0–9 | PLA/BS CMC | Extrusion/ Pellets and Films |
NMR, FTIR, SEM, TGA, and mechanical tests | [161] |
| CNF | Stearoyl chloride |
30 | PLA | Melt blending/ Blends |
DSC, hardness, rheological, wettability and mechanical tests | [162] |
| CNC | Dodecanoyl chloride or APTES | 0.5, 1 or 2 | PLA | Extrusion + molding/ Films |
ATR-IR, AFM, SEM, XRD, wettability and mechanical tests | [163] |
| CNC | Palmitoyl chloride |
0.5 or 1 | PHBV | Melt blending | SEM, HSPOM, TGA, DSC, rheological and mechanical tests | [164] |
| Lignincellulose | Benzoyl chloride |
1–5 | PLA | Casting/Films | FTIR, DSC, XRD, SEM, DMTA, rheological and tensile tests | [165] |
Methods: HSPOM: hot-stage polarized optical microscope WAXS: wide-angle X-ray scattering; EDX: energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy. Abbreviations: APTES: (3-aminopropyl)triethoxysilane; EGMA: ethylene–glycidyl methacrylate copolymer; TPU: thermoplastic polyurethane; BS CMC: banana leaf sheath cellulose microcrystals; for other abbreviations see footnote to Table 3 and Table 4.