Table 1.
Modifiable risk factors obtained from BRFSS, 2015–2018
| Risk factor | Survey question | Coding (yes/no) | Years of available data |
|---|---|---|---|
| Subjective cognitive decline | During the past 12 months, have you experienced confusion or memory loss that is happening more often or is getting worse? | Used default | All |
| Limited educational attainment |
What is the highest grade or year of school you have completed? [Never attended school or only kindergarten/Grades 1–8/Grades 9–11/Grade 12 or GED/College 1–3 years (includes technical school or associate’s degree)/College ≥ 4 years (bachelor’s degree or higher)] |
Limited educational attainment (YES) was defined as never having attended school or only kindergarten or Grades 1–8. All higher levels of education were classified as NO | All |
| Deafness | Are you deaf or do you have serious difficulty hearing? [Yes/No] | Used default | 2016–2018 |
| Social isolation |
1. How often do you get the social and emotional support you need? [Always/Usually/Sometimes/Rarely/Never] 2. Arthritis limited social activities by [A Lot/A Little/Not Limited/Don’t Have Arthritis] |
Social isolation (YES) was defined as never or rarely receiving needed social and emotional support and/or having social activities limited a lot by arthritis. Social isolation (NO) was defined as always, usually, or sometimes receiving needed social and emotional support. Respondents who did not answer question 1 or 2 or who did not answer question 1 and answered “A Little”, “Not Limited” or “Don’t Have Arthritis” were excluded |
1. 2015–2017 2. 2015, 2017 |
| Depression | Have you ever been told you have a depressive disorder including depression, major depression, dysthymia, or minor depression? [Yes/No] | Used default | All |
| Smoking | Have you smoked at least 100 cigarettes in your lifetime and are you currently smoking every day or some days? [Yes/No] | Used default | All |
| Physical inactivity | Have you engaged in physical activity or exercise during the past 30 days other than your regular job? [Yes/No] | Used default | All |
| Obesity | What is your body weight status as determined by Body Mass Index (BMI)? [Underweight (≤ 18.49 kg/m2)/Healthy (18.50–24.99)/Overweight (25.00–29.99)/Obese (≥ 30.00)] | Obesity (YES) was defined as a body weight of obese, while Obesity (NO) was defined as a body weight of underweight, healthy, or overweight | All |
| Hypertension | Have you ever been told by a doctor, nurse, or other health professional that you have high blood pressure? [Yes/No] | Hypertension (NO) was defined as never having had high blood pressure, or only having had borderline-high blood pressure or pre-hypertension, or only having had high blood pressure during pregnancy. All other cases of high blood pressure were classified as YES | All |
| Diabetes | Have you ever been told that you have diabetes? [Yes/No] | Diabetes (NO) was defined as never having had diabetes, or only having had pre-diabetes or borderline diabetes, or only having had diabetes during pregnancy. All other cases of diabetes were classified as YES | All |
| Statistical analysis | ||
|---|---|---|
| Variable | States with available data | Sample sizea |
| Subjective cognitive decline | Alabama, Alaska, Arizona, Arkansas, Delaware, District of Columbia, Georgia, Hawaii, Idaho, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kentucky, Louisiana, Massachusetts, Minnesota, Mississippi, Missouri, Montana, Nevada, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New Mexico, North Carolina, North Dakota, Ohio, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, South Carolina, South Dakota, Tennessee, Vermont, Virginia, Washington, West Virginia, Wisconsin, Wyoming, Puerto Rico | 216,838 |
| Limited educational attainment | Alabama, Alaska, Arizona, Arkansas, Delaware, District of Columbia, Georgia, Hawaii, Idaho, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kentucky, Louisiana, Massachusetts, Minnesota, Mississippi, Missouri, Montana, Nevada, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New Mexico, North Carolina, North Dakota, Ohio, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, South Carolina, South Dakota, Tennessee, Vermont, Virginia, Washington, West Virginia, Wisconsin, Wyoming, Puerto Rico | 216,231 |
| Deafness | Alaska, Delaware, Georgia, Hawaii, Idaho, Indiana, Kentucky, Massachusetts, Mississippi, Missouri, Montana, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New Mexico, North Carolina, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Tennessee, Vermont, Washington, Puerto Rico | 100,825 |
| Social isolation | Alabama, Arizona, Arkansas, District of Columbia, Georgia, Hawaii, Illinois, Iowa, Louisiana, Minnesota, Mississippi, Nevada, New Jersey, North Dakota, Ohio, Oregon, Rhode Island, South Carolina, South Dakota, Tennessee, Virginia, West Virginia, Wisconsin, Wyoming, Puerto Rico | Total: 28,436 |
| 1. 18,168 | ||
| 2. 131,738 (11,102 for ‘arthritis limited social activities by a lot’) | ||
| Depression | Alabama, Alaska, Arizona, Arkansas, Delaware, District of Columbia, Georgia, Hawaii, Idaho, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kentucky, Louisiana, Massachusetts, Minnesota, Mississippi, Missouri, Montana, Nevada, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New Mexico, North Carolina, North Dakota, Ohio, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, South Carolina, South Dakota, Tennessee, Vermont, Virginia, Washington, West Virginia, Wisconsin, Wyoming, Puerto Rico | 215,970 |
| Smoking | Alabama, Alaska, Arizona, Arkansas, Delaware, District of Columbia, Georgia, Hawaii, Idaho, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kentucky, Louisiana, Massachusetts, Minnesota, Mississippi, Missouri, Montana, Nevada, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New Mexico, North Carolina, North Dakota, Ohio, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, South Carolina, South Dakota, Tennessee, Vermont, Virginia, Washington, West Virginia, Wisconsin, Wyoming, Puerto Rico | 215,536 |
| Physical inactivity | Alabama, Alaska, Arizona, Arkansas, Delaware, District of Columbia, Georgia, Hawaii, Idaho, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kentucky, Louisiana, Massachusetts, Minnesota, Mississippi, Missouri, Montana, Nevada, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New Mexico, North Carolina, North Dakota, Ohio, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, South Carolina, South Dakota, Tennessee, Vermont, Virginia, Washington, West Virginia, Wisconsin, Wyoming, Puerto Rico | 216,395 |
| Obesity | Alabama, Alaska, Arizona, Arkansas, Delaware, District of Columbia, Georgia, Hawaii, Idaho, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kentucky, Louisiana, Massachusetts, Minnesota, Mississippi, Missouri, Montana, Nevada, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New Mexico, North Carolina, North Dakota, Ohio, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, South Carolina, South Dakota, Tennessee, Vermont, Virginia, Washington, West Virginia, Wisconsin, Wyoming, Puerto Rico | 204,233 |
| Hypertension | Alabama, Arizona, Arkansas, District of Columbia, Georgia, Hawaii, Illinois, Iowa, Louisiana, Minnesota, Mississippi, Nevada, New Jersey, North Dakota, Ohio, Oregon, Rhode Island, South Carolina, South Dakota, Tennessee, Virginia, West Virginia, Wisconsin, Wyoming, Puerto Rico | 132,662 |
| Diabetes | Alabama, Alaska, Arizona, Arkansas, Delaware, District of Columbia, Georgia, Hawaii, Idaho, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kentucky, Louisiana, Massachusetts, Minnesota, Mississippi, Missouri, Montana, Nevada, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New Mexico, North Carolina, North Dakota, Ohio, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, South Carolina, South Dakota, Tennessee, Vermont, Virginia, Washington, West Virginia, Wisconsin, Wyoming, Puerto Rico | 216,483 |
aTotal n used in analysis of adults aged 45 and older from 2015 to 2018, excluding “Don’t Know” and “Refused” responses