Table 4.

Some nanoformulated antiviral nanomaterials and their antiviral mechanism. FCoV, feline coronavirus; PEDV, porcine epidemic diarrhea virus; TGEV, transmissible gastroenteritis virus; PRRSV, porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus; HSV, herpes simplex virus; HV, herpes virus; RSV, respiratory syncytial virus; HAV, hepatitis virus A; MPV, human meta‐peumo‐virus; NA, data not available

Nanomaterial backbone	Size [nm]/shape	Active nanoagent	Virus type	Results	References
PEG−PLGA	40 nm	Diphyllin	F‐CoV	Combination of PEG−PLGA‐diphyllin mediated reduction of endosomal acidification in fcwf‐4 cells	[ 123 , 124 ]
Graphene‐Ag	7.5 nm	Ag‐NP	F‐CoV	In fcwf‐4 cells, prevents infection of F‐CoV	[ 125 ]
Ag2S nanoclusters	Sphere 3.2 nm	Ag2S Nanoclusters	PEDV	Reduces PEDV infection in Vero cells by blocking RNA synthesis and budding.	[ 126 ]
Ag‐NP and NW	<20 nm	Ag NP/NW	TGEV	Reduces TGEV infection in ST cells	[ 127 ]
Graphene oxide	NA	NA	RSV	Directly bind with virus and block attachment to host cell	[ 128 ]
Nanogel	NA	NA	PRRSV	Inhibit attachment and penetration.	[ 129 ]
Ag‐NPs	NA	NA	HV	Inhibit viral attachment	[ 130 ]
Graphene oxide	NA	NA	HV	Viral attachment inhibitor	[ 131 ]
Au‐NPs	NA	NA	HV	Inhibition of viral attachment and penetration	[ 132 ]
Nanocarbon	NA	NA	HV	Inhibit virus entry in cell	[ 133 ]
Silicon nanoparticles	NA	NA	Influenza A	inhibit progeny virus formation	[ 134 ]
Gd2O3:Tb3+/Er3+ nanoparticles	NA	NA	Zika virus	Act as antigen carriers for Zk2 peptide of Zika virus	[ 135 ]
Copper oxide nanoparticles	NA	NA	HSV type 1	Leads to oxidation of viral proteins and degradation of viral genome	[ 136 ]
Zirconia nanoparticles	NA	NA	H5N1 influenza virus	Induce cytokines production	[ 137 ]
Zinc oxide nanoparticles	NA	NA	H1N1 influenza virus	Inhibit virus multiplication	[ 138 ]
Surface functionalized Antiviral Ag‐NPs
Ag‐NPs	Spherical 1−10 nm	Foamy carbon, PVP and BSA	HSV type1	Interacts with viral protein gp120	[ 139 ]
Ag‐NPs	NA	PVP, BSA, and recombinant F protein (RF 412)	RSV	Interacts with G‐protein on the virus surface	[ 140 ]
Ag‐NPs	Spherical 2−5 nm	Oseltamivir, Amantadine, Zanamivir	H1N1 influenza virus	Block the activity of neuraminidase and hemagglutinin	[ 141 , 142 ]
Ag‐NPs	NA	Poly‐phosphonium‐oligochitosans	HAV, NoV and CoxB4	Inhibit viral attachment and penetration	[ 143 ]
Ag‐NPs	Spherical 10−80 nm	Polysaccharide	MPV	Blocking virus‐host cell binding and penetration	[ 144 ]
Ag‐NPs	Spherical 10 nm	Polysaccharide	TCRV	Inactivates virus outside host cell	[ 145 ]
Ag‐NPs	Spherical 4 nm	Mercapto‐ethanesulfonate	HSV‐1	Competitive inhibition of viral binding to the cell	[ 146 ]
Ag‐NPs	Spherical 2−5 nm	PEI and antiviral siRNA	EV71	Prevent accumulation of ROS and leads to activation of AKT and p53 proteins	[ 147 ]
Ag‐NPs	Spherical 46 nm	Tannic acid	HSV‐2	Blocks the attachment, penetration, and spread of viral particles to the host cell	[ 148 ]