Table 1.

Antiviral and therapeutic mechanisms of AgNPs against different viruses.

Virus host	Virus	AgNP composition	Mode of action	Reference
Animal	Human Immunodeficiency Virus	Uncoated AgNP as well as PVP coated AgNP	Impeding the gp120‐CD4 interaction during virus entry	[11]
	Hepatitis B Virus	Uncoated AgNP	Inhibits virus replication	[13]
	Hepatitis C Virus	Green synthesized AgNPs from Amphimedon (Red Sea Sponge)	Inhibits virus assembly through inactivation of NS3 Helicase and Protease	[14]
	Influenza Virus	Uncoated AgNP	Reducing virus induced apoptosis and cytokine storm, gene delivery carriers of Influenza vaccines.	[15]
	Respiratory Syncytial Virus	PVP coated AgNP, uncoated AgNP	Immunomodulating the immune profile of the host through the activation of neutrophils and anti‐inflammatory mediators	[16]
	Polio Virus	Electrochemically synthesized AgNP	Mechanism unclear	[17]
	Dengue Virus	Mangrove‐fabricated AgNP	Inhibits the expression of the envelope (E) gene and protein in dengue virus (serotype DEN‐2)	[18]
	Chikungunya Virus	Green synthesized AgNP from medicinal plants	Mechanism unclear	[19]
	Monkeypox Virus	Uncoated as well as polysaccharide coated AgNP	Mechanism unclear	[20]
	Vaccinia Virus	Uncoated AgNP	Inhibiting macropinocytosis during virus entry	[21]
	Tacaribe Virus	Uncoated and polysaccharide coated AgNP	Blocks virus replication	[22]
	Rift Valley Fever Virus	PVP coated AgNP	Mechanism unclear	[23]
	African Swine Fever Virus	Uncoated AgNP	Mechanism unclear	[24]
	White Spot Syndrome Virus	PVP coated AgNP	Immunostimulation through the activation of PAMP recognition proteins	[25]
	Enterovirus 71	PEI coated AgNP loaded with siRNA	Inhibiting activation of caspase‐3, ROS and activation of Akt and p53	[26]
	Corona Virus	Uncoated AgNP	Mechanism unclear	[27]
	Murine Norovirus and feline calcivirus	AgNP‐decorated silica hybrid composites	Synergistic interaction of silica and Ag nanocomposites to directly inactivate the viruses prior to their entry	[28]
	Porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus and porcine epidemic diarrhea virus	Silver and Graphene Oxide nanocomposites	Suppression of viral entry and stimulated Interferon‐α and Interferon Stimulated genes that are essential for activation of antiviral innate immune responses	[29]
	Tobacco Mosaic Virus	Biogenic AgNP prepared from the fermented broth ofPseudomonas fluorescens	Mechanism unclear	[30]
Plant	Bean Yellow Mosaic Virus	AgNPs synthesized from extracellular agents produced by Bacillus licheniformis	Mechanism unclear	[31]
	Bacteriophage MS2	AgNP‐decorated silica hybrid composites	Synergistic interaction of silica and Ag nanocompositesto directly inactivate the viruses prior to their entry	[32]
Bacteria	Bacteriophage φX174	AgNP in conjunction with micrometer sized magnetic hybrid colloid	Direct inactivation of viruses. Detailed mechanism unknown.	[33]
	Bacteriophage UZ1	AgNP in conjunction withbacterial cell surface of Lactobacillus fermentumto form biogenic silver immobilized on microporous PVDF membranes	Direct inactivation of viruses. Detailed mechanism unknown.	[34]