Table 1.

Alterations of gut microbiota compositions associated with Chronic Liver Disease.

Comparison a	Microbiota	Sample	Mechanism	Ref.
NASH patients vs Healthy control	Bacteroides ↑Proteobacteria↑ Enterobacteriaceae↑and Escherichia↑Firmicutes↓ Actinobacteria↓Klebsiella Pneumoniae↑	stool	alcohol‐producing bacteria increased, supply a constant source of ROS, liver inflammation increased	(Duarte et al., 2019; Yuan et al., 2019)
ALD patients vs Healthy control	Proteobacteria↑Bacteroidetes↓Firmicutes↓ Enterobacteriaceae↑ Bacteroidetes↓and Lactobacillus↓	colon contents	Beneficial bacteria decreased, intestinal permeability increased, bacterial endotoxins exposure systemic	(Mutlu et al., 2012)
Severe AH patients vs Healthy control	Bifidobacteria↑ Streptococci ↑Enterobacteria↑ Clostridium leptum ↓ Faecalibacterium prausnitziithan ↓	stool	anti-inflammatory bacteria decrease, intestinal dysbiosis caused gut permeability, facilitates microbiota translocation	(Llopis et al., 2016)
Severe AH mice vs non-AH mice	Bilophila, Alistipes↑, Butyricimonas ↑, Clostridium cluster XIVa↑ Parasutterella excrementihominis↓	stool	pro-inflammatory cytokine producing bacteria increased, anti-inflammatory bacteria decreased	(Llopis et al., 2016; Jefferies et al., 2018)
HBV patients vs Healthy control	Fusobacteria↑Veillonella↑Haemophilus↑ Prevotella ↓ Phascolarctobacterium↓	stool	pathogens colonization in the gut, promote systemic inflammation and worsen hepatic dysfunction	(Chen et al., 2020)
HCV patients vs Healthy control	Phylum:Bacteroidetes,Firmicutes↓ Genera:Prevotella↑Acinetobacter↑ Phascolarctobacterium,↑ Veillonella↑Faecalibacterium↑ Ruminococcus↓, Clostridium↓ and Bifidobacterium↓	stool	HCV infection induced intestine dysbiosis; carbohydrates concentrations increased by impairment in the intestine and the expansion of bacteria	(Aly et al., 2016)
PSC patients vs Healthy control	Enterococcus↑, Fusobacterium↑and Lactobacillus↑	stool	serum alkaline phosphatase increased	(Sabino et al., 2016)
PSC patients vs Healthy control	Clostridiales II ↓Veilonella ↑	stool	Veilonella have pro-inflammatory features	(Van den Bogert et al., 2014; Rossen et al., 2015; Iwasawa et al., 2017)
PSC patients vs Healthy control	Blautia ↑ Barnesiellaceae ↑Proteobacteria ↑Parabacteroides↑	Colon contents	Blautia can convert primary to secondary bile acids in the intestine., Proteobacteria and Parabacteroides are bile-tolerant taxons	(Torres et al., 2016; Rühlemann et al., 2019)
PSC patients vs Healthy control	Escherichia ↑Lachnospiraceae ↑ Megasphera ↑ Prevotella ↓ Roseburia ↓Bacteroides ↓	stool	Bacteroidetes is associated with a reduced level of secondary bile acids and play an important role in bile acid deconjugation	(Quraishi et al., 2017)
Cirrhosis patients vs Healthy control	Bifidobacterium↓ Bacteroidetes ↓ Proteobacteria ↑ Fusobacteria↑ Enterobacteriaceae↑ and Enterococcus↑	stool	Enterobacteriaceae release endotoxin, damage the barrier function of the intestine, and increase the intestinal permeability	(Chen et al., 2011; Liu et al., 2012)
Cirrhosis patients vs Healthy control	Enterobacteriaceae↑Alcaligenaceae↑Streptococcaceae↑ Veillonellaceae↑and Fusobacteriaceae↑Bacteroidetes↓ Ruminococcaceae↓ and Lachnospiraceae ↓	stool	pathogenic taxa overgrowth is associated with disease progression and endotoxemia, the reduction taxa can produce SCFAs and anti-bacterial peptides.	(Bajaj et al., 2014b; Trebicka et al., 2021)
HE patients vs Healthy control	Megasphaera↑Enterococcus↑ and Burkholderia↑Veillonellaceae ↑ Fecalibacterium ↓Blautia ↓, Roseburia ↓and Dorea ↓	stool	Decreased bacteria associated with good cognition and decreased inflammation, increased bacteria linked to poor cognition and inflammation	(Bajaj, 2014; Bajaj et al., 2016; Bajaj et al., 2019)
HCC patients vs cirrhosis	Escherichia coli ↑	stool	hepatocarcinogenesis attributed to the E. coli overgrowth	(Grt et al., 2016)
HCC rats vs Healthy control	Lactobacillus ↓Bifidobacterium ↓and Enterococcus ↓	stool	Intestinal inflammation increased, probiotics decreased, which can inhibit the translocation of endotoxin, activation of DAMPs, reduce tumorigenic inflammation	(Zhang et al., 2012)

^aA comparison of condition A vs condition B; ↑, increase in condition A related to condition B; ↓, decrease in condition A related to condition B.