Table 1.

Associations between dietary patterns and immune parameters from healthy cohorts.

Dietary pattern	Countries associated	Foods	Nutrient characteristics	Immune parameters	Ref.
Western diet	UK, USA, Canada, Australia, Mexico	Processed foods, refined sugars, refined grains Low fruit & vegetable consumption	High saturated fat, carbohydrate, salt, cholesterol Low fibre, vitamins, minerals	↑ serum CRP, IL-6, E-selectin, sICAM-1, sVCAM-1 ↑ platelet CD41, platelet-granulocyte aggregates ↑ colonic IL1B, FAS, TNF, IFNAR1, STAT2 expression	(6, 22)(23, 24)
Mediterranean diet	Italy, Greece, Cyprus,	Fish, cheese, yoghurt, cereals, fruits & vegetables, wine, olive oil Meat, milk	Low saturated fat, high monounsaturated fat intake High fibre, high vitamin B, C, E and polyphenols, moderate ethanol intake	↓ serum IL-6, CRP, TNF-α, ICAM-1	(25–27)
Indigenous African diet	Burkina Faso, Tanzania, South Africa,	unrefined grains, legumes, vegetables	High fibre, resistant starch, plant-derived proteins low animal protein intake	↓ plasma IL-1β ↓ IFN-γ, TNF, IL-6 in response to whole blood LPS stimulation ↓ macrophages in lamina propria	(28, 29)(30)
Traditional East-Asian diet	Japan, Korea	Fermented vegetables, soy, rice, fish	High salt, carbohydrate, sodium low fat	↑ plasma IL-10 ↓ serum IL-6, CRP	(31, 32)(33, 34)(35)
Plant-based diet	n/a	Whole grains, cereals, fruits, vegetables, legumes, nuts, low red meat consumption	High fibre, plant-derived proteins, fats polyphenols low/no animal derived protein or fats	↓ serum CRP, ↓ overall WBC, ↓ blood neutrophils, monocytes	(36, 37)(38, 39)

LPS, Lipopolysaccharide; WBC, White blood cell count.

↑, increased; ↓, decreased; n/a, not applicable.