Figure 4.

Differential effects of sex hormones on endothelial cells in males and females. Estrogens bind to estrogen receptors, which have beneficial effects (green text) on the endothelium and promote endothelium-dependent vasodilation in both men and women. Androgens bind to androgen receptors, which have negative effects (red text) on endothelial function in women. In men, the effect of androgen activity is mixed (dotted arrows), with some studies demonstrating beneficial effects and others demonstrating deleterious effects. Androgens may be converted to estrogens via aromatase activity. [Ca]_i, intracellular calcium concentration; IK, intermediate-conductance calcium-activated potassium channels; MAPK, mitogen-activated protein kinase; PI3K, phosphoinositide 3-kinase; SK, small-conductance calcium-activated potassium channels. Created with BioRender.com and published with permission.