Table 1.
Clinical characteristics.
| PD-S | PD-NS | HC-S | HC-NS | p values | |||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| (n = 39) | (n = 90) | (n = 26) | (n = 43) | 4 groups | PD-S versus PD-NS | PD-S versus HC-S | PD-S versus HC-NS | PD-NS versus HC-S | PD-NS versus HC-NS | HC-S versus HC-NS | |
| Age (years) | 61.5 ± 10.1 | 59.0 ± 8.7 | 59.1 ± 10.5 | 60.5 ± 11.2 | 0.545 a | – | – | – | – | – | – |
| Sex (male/female) | 28/11 | 56/34 | 18/8 | 28/15 | 0.735 b | – | – | – | – | – | – |
| Education (years) | 16.2 ± 2.1 | 16.8 ± 2.7 | 16.5 ± 2.6 | 17.4 ± 2.4 | 0.149 c | – | – | – | – | – | – |
| Regularly current smokers (n) | 3 | 0 | 1 | 0 | n/a | n/a | n/a | n/a | n/a | n/a | n/a |
| H-Y stages | 1.4 ± 0.6 | 1.6 ± 0.5 | n/a | n/a | n/a | 0.175 d | n/a | n/a | n/a | n/a | n/a |
| MDS-UPDRS Part I | 4.7 ± 3.3 | 4.8 ± 3.3 | 2.9 ± 2.6 | 3.1 ± 2.5 | 0.003 c * | 0.882 | 0.020 | 0.023 | 0.006 | 0.004 | 0.721 |
| MDS-UPDRS Part II | 5.8 ± 3.9 | 5.6 ± 4.2 | 0.3 ± 0.9 | 0.3 ± 0.7 | <0.001 c * | 0.707 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | 0.957 |
| MDS-UPDRS Part III | 19.0 ± 7.3 | 20.0 ± 7.8 | 0.7 ± 1.0 | 0.9 ± 1.4 | <0.001 c * | 0.572 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | 0.893 |
| MDS-UPDRS Total Score | 29.4 ± 11.4 | 30.4 ± 12.1 | 3.9 ± 3.5 | 4.2 ± 3.3 | <0.001 c * | 0.788 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | 0.799 |
| MOCA | 27.5 ± 2.4 | 27.5 ± 1.8 | 28.1 ± 1.1 | 28.1 ± 1.1 | 0.31 c | – | – | – | – | – | – |
| GDS | 1.9 ± 1.2 | 1.9 ± 2.2 | 1.1 ± 1.4 | 1.1 ± 1.8 | 0.001 c * | 0.137 | 0.007 | <0.001 | 0.075 | 0.007 | 0.679 |
| SCOPA-AUT | 9.0 ± 5.4 | 7.7 ± 4.8 | 4.9 ± 3.2 | 5.6 ± 2.8 | <0.001 c * | 0.224 | <0.001 | 0.002 | 0.003 | 0.015 | 0.404 |
| STAI | 58.2 ± 15.0 | 63.0 ± 17.5 | 54.5 ± 12.1 | 53.3 ± 12.1 | 0.004 c | – | – | – | – | – | – |
| QUIP | 0.4 ± 0.6 | 0.2 ± 0.60 | 0.6 ± 1.1 | 0.1 ± 0.3 | 0.004 c | – | – | – | – | – | – |
| UPSIT | 23.3 ± 8.4 | 23.3 ± 7.6 | 33.4 ± 5.9 | 35.1 ± 4.2 | <0.001 c * | 0.904 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | 0.373 |
| ESS | 5.3 ± 2.7 | 5.7 ± 3.6 | 5.7 ± 2.9 | 5.5 ± 3.6 | 0.954 c | – | – | – | – | – | – |
ESS, Epworth Sleepiness Scale Score; GDS, Geriatric Depression Scale; HC-NS, healthy controls without regular smoking history; HC-S, healthy controls with regular smoking history; H-Y stages, Hoehn and Yahr stages; MDS-UPDRS, Movement Disorders Society Unified Parkinson’s Disease Rating Scale; MOCA, Montreal Cognitive Assessment; PD-NS, PD patients without regular smoking history; PD-S, PD patients with regular smoking history; QUIP, Questionnaire for Impulsive-Compulsive Disorders; SCOPA-AUT, Scale for Outcomes for Parkinson’s Disease–autonomic function; STAI, State trait anxiety score; UPSIT, University of Pennsylvania Smell Identification Test. Fewer than five participants in each group missed any one assessment.
One-way ANOVA
Chi-square test
Kruskal–Wallis H test
Mann–Whitney U test
– indicates post hoc test was not further performed if there was no statistical difference among the four groups in one-way ANOVA or Kruskal–Wallis H test.
Significance level for comparisons is p < 0.0033 (after Bonferroni correction).