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. 2022 Apr 6;12:872019. doi: 10.3389/fcimb.2022.872019

Figure 1.

Figure 1

Mechanisms of the gut microbiota in PC. The gut microbiota promotes the carcinogenesis of PC cells by these mechanisms, such as inflammatory response, immune response and bile acid. Dysbiosis of gut microbiota increases bacterial invasion, which promotes carcinogenesis of pancreatic cells. (A) Inflammatory responses: Invasive bacteria enter the bloodstream and release large amounts of LPS. LPS is recognized by TLRs on macrophages. Macrophages are activated to release some proinflammatory cytokines (CXCLs, IL-6) and activate signaling pathways (NF-kB). Accumulated inflammatory responses induce KRAS gene mutation. (B) Immune responses: Invasive bacteria activate tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes and immunosuppressive regulatory T cells. Tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes can promote cell proliferation and inhibit apoptosis through the STAT3 and NF-κB signaling pathways. Immunosuppressive regulatory T cells lead to systemic immune suppression by releasing IL-10 and transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β). (C) Bile acid: bile acid can upregulate the mRNA of cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) in PC cells to increase the invasion ability of tumor cells.