Fig. 6.

The alterations of intestinal microbiome in IBD. In patients with IBD, the community of the intestinal microbiota is altered as indicated in figure. Furthermore, the abundance of microbial metabolites, such as H₂S and short-chain fatty acids are changed. In IBD, gut microbiota could also impact the function of macrophages and dendritic cells (DC). Additionally, the microbiota affects the production of pro-inflammatory factors such as TNF-α and interleukin (IL)-6. Finally, the mucin layer becomes thinner in IBD because of impaired goblet cell function.