Table 4.
Food ordering patterns of participating youths before COVID-19 and under lockdown, by educational level and weight change status
| Variables | High school students |
Undergraduate students |
Graduate students |
||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| constant (n = 1,796) | decreased (n = 240) | increased (n = 788) | constant (n = 4,041) | decreased (n = 824) | increased (n = 2,159) | constant (n = 118) | decreased (n = 15) | increased (n = 101) | |
| Weekly frequency of food ordering | |||||||||
| Pre-COVID-19, days/week | |||||||||
| None | 93.9 | 92.5 | 91.4 | 83.3 | 78.4 | 80.1 | 66.9 | 80.0 | 64.4 |
| 1–3 | 5.0 | 5.8 | 7.5 | 13.1 | 17.6 | 76.7 | 24.6 | 13.3 | 25.7 |
| 4–6 | 0.7 | 0.5 | 0.3 | 2.1 | 2.4 | 7.8 | 3.4 | 6.7 | 4.0 |
| 7 | 0.4 | 1.2 | 0.8 | 1.5 | 1.6 | 2.0 | 5.1 | 0 | 5.9 |
| Lockdown, days/week | |||||||||
| None | 97.0** | 96.7* | 97.2*** | 94.9*** | 94.8*** | 96.6*** | 100.0 | 94.0*** | |
| 1–3 | 2.4** | 2.1* | 3.3*** | 4.0*** | 0 | 5.0*** | |||
| 4–6 | 0.3** | 1.2* | 0.7*** | 0.6*** | 0.1*** | 0 | 0*** | ||
| 7 | 0.3** | 0* | 0.6*** | 0.8*** | 0.6*** | 0.8*** | 0 | 1.0*** | |
| Average weekly frequency of food ordering, days/week | |||||||||
| Pre-COVID-19 | 0.2±0.7 | 0.2±1.0 | 0.2±0.8 | 0.5±1.2 | 0.6±1.3 | 0.6±1.3 | 1±1.8 | 0.6±1.4 | 1.1±1.9 |
| Lockdown | 0.1±0.6*** | 0.1±0.6* | 0.1±0.6*** | 0.2±0.8*** | 0.2±0.8*** | 0.2±0.8*** | 0.1±0.7*** | 0 | 0.2±0.8*** |
| Individual-level changes in food ordering | |||||||||
| Started ordering | 1.9 | 2.5 | 1.9 | 3.9 | 4.9 | 4.1 | 2.5 | 0 | 5.9 |
| Stopped ordering | 3.6 | 3.3 | 5.1 | 10.2 | 13.2 | 12.9 | 28.0 | 20.0 | 25.7 |
| Increased | 0.1 | 0 | 0.3 | 0.4 | 1.0 | 0.8 | 0 | 0 | 1.1 |
| Decreased | 0.3 | 0 | 0.4 | 0.8 | 0.7 | 0.6 | 0 | 0 | 2.0 |
| Constant | 2.1 | 4.2 | 2.8 | 5.2 | 6.7 | 5.6 | 5.1 | 0 | 6.9 |
| Never | 92.0 | 90.0 | 89.5 | 79.5 | 73.5 | 76.0 | 64.4 | 80.0 | 58.4 |
| Individual-level changes by ordering time | |||||||||
| Breakfast | |||||||||
| Started ordering | 0.3 | 0 | 0.4 | 0.7 | 1.1 | 0.8 | 0.8 | 0 | 0 |
| Stopped ordering | 0.7 | 0 | 0.8 | 1.1 | 1.3 | 1.1 | 0.1 | 6.7 | 0 |
| Constant | 0.4 | 0 | 0.4 | 0.4 | 0.3 | 0.4 | 0.8 | 0 | 0 |
| Never | 98.6 | 100 | 98.4 | 97.8 | 97.3 | 97.7 | 98.3 | 93.3 | 100 |
| Lunch | |||||||||
| Started ordering | 1.6 | 1.2 | 1.3 | 3.1 | 4.0 | 3.4 | 0.8 | 0 | 4.0 |
| Stopped ordering | 1.8 | 1.7 | 2.4 | 8.4 | 10.7 | 10.5 | 22.9 | 13.3 | 21.8 |
| Constant | 1.0 | 2.9 | 1.8 | 3.2 | 5.2 | 3.7 | 1.7 | 0 | 7.9 |
| Never | 95.6 | 94.2 | 94.5 | 85.3 | 80.1 | 82.4 | 74.6 | 86.7 | 66.3 |
| Dinner | |||||||||
| Started ordering | 0.9 | 2.5 | 1.3 | 2.2 | 3.0 | 3.2 | 3.4 | 0 | 4.0 |
| Stopped ordering | 1.1 | 2.5 | 2.2 | 6.7 | 7.6 | 7.8 | 18.6 | 13.3 | 19.8 |
| Constant | 1.0 | 0.8 | 1.1 | 2.3 | 3.4 | 2.7 | 0.9 | 0 | 3.0 |
| Never | 97.0 | 94.2 | 95.4 | 88.8 | 86.0 | 86.3 | 77.1 | 86.7 | 73.2 |
| Midnight snack | |||||||||
| Started ordering | 0.7 | 1.7 | 0.9 | 1.2 | 1.7 | 1.3 | 0.8 | 0 | 0 |
| Stopped ordering | 1.6 | 1.7 | 1.4 | 2.4 | 3.9 | 2.6 | 0.1 | 6.7 | 3.0 |
| Constant | 0.7 | 2.5 | 0.9 | 1.1 | 1.5 | 2.2 | 0.8 | 0 | 0 |
| Never | 97.0 | 94.1 | 96.8 | 95.3 | 92.9 | 93.9 | 98.3 | 93.3 | 97.0 |
| Individual-level changes by type of food ordered | |||||||||
| Chinese dishes with rice | |||||||||
| Started ordering | 0.8 | 1.2 | 0.8 | 2.0 | 2.4 | 2.2 | 1.7 | 0 | 2.0 |
| Stopped ordering | 1.6 | 1.2 | 2.2 | 6.0 | 7.4 | 7.4 | 19.5 | 13.3 | 24.8 |
| Constant | 0.7 | 0.9 | 0.9 | 1.8 | 2.1 | 2.0 | 0.8 | 0 | 2.0 |
| Never | 96.9 | 96.7 | 96.1 | 90.2 | 88.1 | 88.4 | 78.0 | 86.7 | 71.2 |
| (Spicy) hot pot | |||||||||
| Started ordering | 0.9 | 2.5 | 1.4 | 2.5 | 2.8 | 2.5 | 2.5 | 0 | 4.0 |
| Stopped ordering | 1.9 | 2.1 | 2.4 | 7.1 | 9.7 | 8.4 | 16.1 | 6.7 | 19.8 |
| Constant | 1.0 | 2.5 | 1.5 | 2.6 | 3.6 | 3.6 | 0.9 | 0 | 5.9 |
| Never | 96.2 | 92.9 | 94.7 | 87.7 | 83.9 | 85.5 | 80.5 | 93.3 | 70.3 |
| Fried foods or hamburgers | |||||||||
| Started ordering | 1.4 | 1.2 | 1.6 | 2.7 | 4.0 | 2.7 | 2.5 | 0 | 1.0 |
| Stopped ordering | 1.7 | 3.3 | 2.8 | 4.6 | 6.7 | 6.3 | 5.9 | 13.3 | 10.9 |
| Constant | 1.0 | 1.7 | 1.2 | 2.6 | 3.9 | 3.2 | 0.1 | 0 | 3.0 |
| Never | 95.9 | 93.8 | 94.4 | 90.1 | 85.4 | 87.8 | 91.5 | 86.7 | 85.1 |
| Cakes/pastries | |||||||||
| Started ordering | 1.3 | 2.5 | 1.0 | 2.1 | 3.6 | 2.5 | 2.5 | 0 | 2.0 |
| Stopped ordering | 1.2 | 1.2 | 1.6 | 4.4 | 4.9 | 5.2 | 8.5 | 6.7 | 9.9 |
| Constant | 0.8 | 2.5 | 1.5 | 2.1 | 3.5 | 2.5 | 0.9 | 0 | 3.0 |
| Never | 96.7 | 93.8 | 95.9 | 91.4 | 88.0 | 89.8 | 88.1 | 93.3 | 85.1 |
| Simple western meals | |||||||||
| Started ordering | 0.5 | 1.2 | 0.5 | 1.0 | 1.3 | 1.1 | 1.7 | 0 | 2.0 |
| Stopped ordering | 0.3 | 2.1 | 0.5 | 1.7 | 2.2 | 1.7 | 3.4 | 13.3 | 3.0 |
| Constant | 0.3 | 0 | 0.5 | 0.8 | 1.2 | 1.5 | 0.8 | 0 | 2.0 |
| Never | 98.9 | 96.7 | 98.5 | 96.5 | 95.3 | 95.7 | 94.1 | 86.7 | 93.0 |
| Barbecue/grill | |||||||||
| Started ordering | 0.3 | 1.7 | 0.5 | 1.4 | 2.1 | 1.9 | 2.5 | 0 | 2.0 |
| Stopped ordering | 1.0 | 1.3 | 0.6 | 2.7 | 4.1 | 3.8 | 0.9 | 6.7 | 7.9 |
| Constant | 0.4 | 1.2 | 0.5 | 1.2 | 1.9 | 1.9 | 0 | 0 | 1.0 |
| Never | 98.3 | 95.8 | 98.4 | 94.7 | 91.9 | 92.4 | 96.6 | 93.3 | 89.1 |
| Flour-based foods | |||||||||
| Started ordering | 0.6 | 0.8 | 1.8 | 2.0 | 2.8 | 1.9 | 2.5 | 0 | 0 |
| Stopped ordering | 1.3 | 0.5 | 1.8 | 4.4 | 6.2 | 5.8 | 10.2 | 6.7 | 14.9 |
| Constant | 0.9 | 0.4 | 0.8 | 1.1 | 2.3 | 1.9 | 0.9 | 0 | 4.0 |
| Never | 97.2 | 98.3 | 95.6 | 92.5 | 88.7 | 90.4 | 86.4 | 93.3 | 81.1 |
| Braised foods | |||||||||
| Started ordering | 0.3 | 0.8 | 0.6 | 0.7 | 1.1 | 1.0 | 0 | 0 | 1.0 |
| Stopped ordering | 0.3 | 0 | 0.2 | 1.7 | 2.4 | 2.3 | 0.8 | 0 | 2.0 |
| Constant | 0.3 | 0.4 | 0.1 | 0.6 | 1.1 | 1.0 | 0 | 0 | 1.0 |
| Never | 99.1 | 98.8 | 99.1 | 97.0 | 95.4 | 95.7 | 99.2 | 100 | 96.0 |
| Japanese/Korean foods | |||||||||
| Started ordering | 0.2 | 0.4 | 0.3 | 0.5 | 1.0 | 0.8 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
| Stopped ordering | 0.3 | 0.4 | 0.3 | 1.6 | 2.3 | 1.4 | 5.1 | 13.3 | 5.0 |
| Constant | 0.1 | 0 | 0.1 | 0.7 | 1.1 | 0.6 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
| Never | 99.4 | 99.2 | 99.3 | 97.2 | 95.6 | 97.2 | 94.9 | 86.7 | 95.0 |
| Other foods | |||||||||
| Started ordering | 0.4 | 0.4 | 0 | 0.5 | 1.3 | 0.4 | 0 | 0 | 1.0 |
| Stopped ordering | 0.4 | 0.4 | 0.3 | 1.5 | 1.2 | 1.6 | 0.8 | 0 | 0 |
| Constant | 0.3 | 0.4 | 0 | 0.4 | 0.4 | 0.5 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
| Never | 98.9 | 98.8 | 99.7 | 97.6 | 97.1 | 97.5 | 99.2 | 100 | 99.0 |
Values are given as percentages or mean ± SD. SD, standard deviation. Values under a given variable were shown in bold, if the difference across educational levels (high school students, undergraduate students, and graduate students) within a given group of weight change status (constant, decreased, and increased) was significant (p < 0.05); shown in italic, if the difference among the 3 groups of weight change status at a given educational level was significant (p < 0.05); and marked by asterisks, if the difference before and during the COVID-19 lockdown within a given group of weight change status at a given educational level was significant
*
p < 0.05
**
p < 0.01,
***
p < 0.001).