Table 2.
Included studies
| Author, year | Acrylic brand, composition, Candida species | Processing method/sample dimensions | Modification | Tested properties | Results | Conclusions |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Yildirim et al., 2005[16] | Denture acrylic, Meliodent (Bayer Dental, Newbury Berkshire, UK) | *Heat-cured | *One surface polished, the other was not (ground with 500 grid sandpaper) |
*Contact angle | *O2 surface modification sig. improved wettability (lowered contact angle) compared with control | *O2 gas is effective in increasing wettability of PMMA even with salivary pellicle. |
| *Control *102 discs (17×1 mm) |
*Plasma surface treatment for 15 min at the O2 level of 0, 50, or 100 W. n=34 | *Candida adhesion | *The reduction in contact angle is directly related to plasma power | *Candida adherence increased as hydrophilicity increased | ||
| *n=60 for wettability *n=30 for Candida adhesion *n=12 for surface analysis |
*Saliva contact | *Saliva reduced contact angle of control, and increased it for plasma-treated | ||||
| *Candida adhesion to control was less than surface treated → increased surface wettability, increased Candida adhesion | ||||||
| *Increase in O/C ratio → more hydrophilic | ||||||
| Nevzatoğlu et al., 2007[17] | ACRON Shade No. 3, GC | *Heat-cured | *Polishing up to 1000 grit *Buff polished |
*Candida adherence | *Candida count was lowest in the coated specimens < buff polished < control | *Straight silicone coating is capable of improving surface properties of denture base material so that it becomes difficult for C. albicans to adhere |
| C. albicans (JCM 1542) | *Discs (20×1 mm) | *20% straight silicon coating for 5, 30 min | *Contact angle | *Contact angle of the coated specimens was larger than control or buff polished | ||
| *Control (uncoated) | ||||||
| Zamperini et al., 2010[18] | Vipi Wave; VIPI | *Microwave-cured | *Processing technique (against glass or against stone) | *Surface roughness | *Surface roughness of specimens processed against glass was lower. No difference between all groups regarding surface roughness in each investigation. | *Adherence of C. albicans was sig. reduced by ArO2/70 W and ArSF6/70 W plasma, regardless of the presence or absence of saliva and surface roughness (smooth or rough). |
| Industria e Comercio Exportacao e Importacao de Produtos Odontologicos Ltda Pirassununga, SP, Brazil | *Control *180 discs (13.8×2 mm) in 10 groups *n=18 |
*Plasma treatment for 5 min: | *Contact angle | *Groups 2 and 4 were not sig. different from each other and showed sig. lower absorbance reading. | *Hydrophobicity was altered by the plasma treatments and water immersion | |
| C. albicans (ATCC 90028) | *Processed against glass or stone | 1: argon atmosphere at 50 W | *Candida adhesion | *Contact angle was altered by plasma tx and water immersion for all groups except controls. | *No sig. effect of surface roughness and saliva on adherence of C. albicans | |
| 2: argon/oxygen atmosphere at 70 W 3: atmospheric air at 130 W | *For control, contact angle was sig. different b/w rough and smooth. | |||||
| 4: argon atmosphere, followed by sulfur hexafluoride atmosphere at 70 W *Saliva exposure (30 min unstimulated whole human saliva) |
*XPS showed incorporation of fluorine into the surface of group 4 | |||||
| Zamperini et al., 2010[19] | Vipi Wave; VIPI | *Microwave-cured | *Processing technique (against glass or against stone) | *Surface roughness | *Surface roughness of specimens processed against glass was lower. | *Contact angle was altered by the plasma treatments. However, mean contact angles of treated specimens were similar to those of control specimens, after 48 h of immersion in water. |
| Industria e Comercio Exportacao e Importacao de | *Control *180 discs (13.8×2 mm) in five groups |
*Plasma treatment for 5 min: 1: argon atmosphere at 50 W |
*Contact angle | *Contact angle for all groups changed after water immersion except control. All test groups showed an increase in contact angle after water immersion except group 4 which showed a reduction. | *Adherence of C. albicans was not sig. reduced by plasma treatments, surface roughness, or presence of saliva | |
| Produtos Odontologicos Ltda Pirassununga, SP, Brazil | *n=18 *Processed against glass or stone |
2: argon/oxygen atmosphere at 70 W 3: atmospheric air at 130 W |
*Candida adhesion | *No sig. difference between all groups regarding Candida adhesion irrespective of ± saliva, surface roughness, treatment | ||
|
C. albicans (ATCC 90028) |
4: argon atmosphere, followed by sulfur hexafluoride atmosphere at 70 W | |||||
| *Saliva exposure | ||||||
| Wady et al., 2012[20] | Vipi Wave; VIPI | *Microwave-cured | *AgNPs solution mixed with 75g acrylic powder at concentrations of (1000, 750, 500, 250, 30, 0 ppm), dried, sieved, ball milled | *Surface roughness | *No sig. difference in contact angle between 0 and 7 days or 90- and 180-day storage periods. | *AgNPs had no effect on C. albicans adherence and biofilm formation regardless of concentrations |
| Industria e Comercio Exportacao e Importacao de Produtos | *Control *72 discs (13.8×2 mm) *n=18 |
*Different storage periods (0, 7, 90, 180 days) (n=18) | *Contact angle | *After 90 and 180 days, contact angles were sig. higher than that at 0 and 7 days | ||
| Odontologicos Ltda Pirassununga, SP, Brazil | *Adherence biofilm formation | *Contact angles were lower than control for all experimental groups | ||||
| C. albicans (ATCC 90028) | *No sig. difference b/w 0–7, 90–180 days regarding Candida adhesion and biofilm | |||||
| *Significant absorbance value noted for 90 and 180 days | ||||||
| Lazarin et al., 2013[21] | Vipi Wave; VIPI | *Microwave-cured | *Processed against glass (smooth) or against stone (rough) | *Surface roughness | *Sig. increase in surface roughness for all rough specimens. | *Experimental S and HP coatings showed sig. reduction of short-term attachment (90 min) of C. albicans to PMMA |
| Industria e Comercio Exportacao e Importacao de Produtos Odontologicos Ltda Pirassununga, SP, Brazil | *468 discs (13.8×2 mm) in 13 groups | *Photopolymerized coatings: 1. 2-hydroxyethyl methacrylate (HE) (HEMA) (cured for 4 min) |
*Surface free energy through contact angle measurement | *Total surface free energy was generally higher in all experimental groups compared with controls | ||
|
C. albicans (ATCC 90028) |
*n=36 *Control |
2. hydroxypropyl methacrylate (HP) (HPMA) (cured for 4 min) | *Candida adhesion | *Generally, no sig. difference of surface free energy b/w saliva-coated and uncoated specimens | ||
| 3. 2-tri-methyl-ammonium ethyl methacrylate chloride (T) (TMAEMC) (cured for 4 min) | *For smooth specimens, no sig. difference b/w all groups | |||||
| 4. sulfobetaine methacrylate (S) (oven at 80°C for 2 h) *Concentrations of coatings at 0%, 25%, 30%, and 35% of the total composition in mmol. |
*For rough surfaces, S30, S35, and HP30 had sig. lower absorbance values than control | |||||
| Additional components in the coating: MMA, TEGDMA, bis-GMA, 4-methyl benzophenone. Also, amino propyl methacrylate for group 4 | ||||||
| *± saliva (non-stimulated) for 30 min at room temp. | ||||||
| Queiroz et al., 2013[22] | Lucitone 550; Dentsply Ind. Com. Ltda, Petropolis, Brazil | *Heat-cured *45 discs (10×5mm) in three groups |
*Polishing of both sides to 1200 grit silicon carbide paper | *Surface roughness (optical, non-contact) | *RBS confirms the presence of carbon in groups 2 and 3 and silver in group 3 | *DLC thin films significantly diminished C. albicans biofilm formation |
|
C. albicans (ATCC 18804) |
*n=15 *Control (no surface treatment) |
*Surface treatment for 15 min: | *Rutherford backscattering spectroscopy (RBS) and atomic force microscopy (AFM) for film characterization | *Surface roughness did not affect the number of Candida adhered | *The films undoped and doped with silver nanoparticles presented similar behavior. | |
| 1. no coating (Gc) | *Anti-microbial activity assessment after 24 h at 37°C b CFU count | *Surface treatment reduced Candida adhesion in groups 2 and 3 compared with control | ||||
| 2. surface coating with DLC fil (Gdlc) | *No additional reducing effect was seen with Ag addition | |||||
| 3. surface coating with DLC doped with Ag-Nps (Gag) | *DLC increased hydrophobicity and lowered surface energy | |||||
| DLC = diamond-like carbon | ||||||
| Al-Bakri et al., 2014[23] | Urban, Shofu Inc., Kyoto, Japan | *Heat-cured *50 discs (10×1.5 mm) in 5 groups |
*Silane-coated glass fibers (1.5 µm, with 15% w/w fluoride) were added to PMMA at concentrations of 0.5%, 1.0%, 2.5%, 5.0%, 10% | *Contact angle | *No sig. difference between all groups regarding contact angle and surface free energy→ fluoride did not have an effect | *Increased loading of the fillers produced increased surface roughness |
| C. albicnas (GDH 2346) | *n=10 *Control |
*Polishing of both sides with 400 grit Al2O3 | *Surface free energy (contact angle cosine value) | *10% filler produced sig. rougher surface than control and 1.0% | *No direct correlation between surface roughness and microbial adhesion | |
| *Surface roughness (non-contact) | *Fluoride addition sig. reduced Candida adhesion to PMMA | *Presence of saliva and fluoride glass fillers significantly reduced Candida adhesion | ||||
| *Adherent Candida count using a light microscope | *Coating PMMA with saliva sig. reduced Candida adhesion | |||||
| Lazarin et al., 2014[24] | Vipi Wave; VIPI | *Microwave-cured *468 discs (13.8×2 mm) in 13 groups |
*Processed against glass (smooth) or against stone (rough) | *Surface roughness | *No sig. differences in surface roughness among groups within each fabrication method | *Experimental photopolymerized coatings did not alter hydrophobicity but changed chemical composition. |
| Industria e Comercio Exportacao e Importacao de Produtos Odontologicos Ltda Pirassununga, SP, Brazil |
*n=36 *Control |
*Photopolymerized coatings: | *contact angle | *Samples prepared against stone were sig. rougher than those prepared against glass | *C. albicans adhesion decreased with coatings sulfobetaine, 2-hydroxypropyl methacrylate, and 2-hydroxyethyl methacrylate | |
|
C. albicans (ATCC 90028) |
1. 2-hydroxyethyl methacrylate (HE) (HEMA) (cured for 4 min) | *Candida adhesion | *Smooth groups HE30, T25, T30, and T35 had sig. higher contact angle | |||
| 2. hydroxypropyl methacrylate (HP) (HPMA) (cured for 4 min) | *Contact angles for rough surface were not sig. different | |||||
| 3. 2-tri-methyl-ammonium ethyl methacrylate chloride (T) (TMAEMC) (cured for 4 min) | *No sig. different in Candida adhesion for saliva-coated specimens | |||||
| 4. sulfobetaine methacrylate (S) (oven at 80°C for 2 h) | *Smooth and non-saliva-coated specimens showed sig. lower Candida with S35, HP35, and HE35 | |||||
| *Concentrations of coatings 0%, 25%, 30%, and 35% of the total composition in mmol. | *Rough specimens ± saliva → no sig. difference between groups regarding Candida adhesion | |||||
| Additional components: MMA, TEGDMA, Bis-GMA, 4-methyl benzophenone. Also, amino propyl methacrylate for group 4 | *Rough S25, S30, HP35, HE30, HE35, T35 with no saliva showed higher Candida adhesion than same smooth groups | |||||
| *± saliva (non-stimulated) for 30 min at room temp. | *XPS showed increase in C, O, Si after HE, HP, and T coating, and S for S coating | |||||
| Yodmongkol et al., 2014[25] | Rodex (Australia) | *Heat-cured | *Silane-SiO2 nanocomposite dip-coating evaporating solvent at 65°C for 20 min and then heating to 110°C for 2 h | *Candida adhesion after 1 h using optical microscope (n=6) | *Sig. higher cell adhesion was seen on uncoated specimens than coated | *Silane-SiO2 nanocomposite films can make acrylic resin more hydrophobic, which decreases C. albicans adhesion. |
|
C. albicans (ATCC 10231) |
*Rectangular specimens (1.5×1.5×1 mm) | *FTIR (n=3) | *FTIR for coated showed a peak for Si-O-Si | *This film improved surface and physical properties of acrylic | ||
| *Control *Roughness (n=5) *Contact angle and SFE (n=3) |
*Surface roughness (contact) (n=5) | *Surface roughness was the same for coated and uncoated | ||||
| *Contact angle of three liquids were used: | *Surface energy was slightly reduced on coated (not sig.) | |||||
| deionized water 18 MΩ/cm, diiodomethane, and glycerol (n=3) → SFE | *Average thickness of coating was 6.8 ±1.0 µm | |||||
| *SEM | ||||||
| Sawada et al., 2014[26] | Natural Resin, Nissin Co., Kyoto, Japan | *Heat-cured | *Addition of 5 wt.%: | *Surface roughness | *Candida binding was sig. decreased in all test groups compared with controls | *Influence of surface characteristics on the adhesion of C. albicans to various denture lining mats |
| C. albicans (ATCC 1002) | *Rectangular 64×10×33 mm | —FAp-TiO2 (100 nm) —HAp-TiO2 (100 nm) |
*Viable cells determination after incubation for 2 h at 37°C and UVA irradiation | *Candida binding was sig. lower in the FAp-TiO2- and TiO2- containing discs than in the HAp-TiO2-containing discs | ||
| *n=12 *Control (pure PMMA) |
—TiO2 (25 nm) | |||||
| *Polishing up to 2000 grit polishing paper | ||||||
| Compagnoni et al., 2014[27] | Lucitone 550 | *Heat-cured | *Modification with PTBAEMA (0% or 10%) | *Contact angle measurement using 1.0 µL deionized water drop | *Surface roughness increased with PTBAEMA addition | *PTBAEMA slightly increases wettability and roughness of acrylic resin |
| Dentsply International Inc., York, PA, USA | *Control (unmodified) | PTBAEMA= polymer poly (2-tert-butylaminoethyl) | *Atomic force microscopy observations of 100 and 400 µm2 | *Contact angles of PTBAEMA-modified acrylic is lower than controls | *PTBAEMA into acrylic resins did not have an effect against C. albicans at 10% | |
| C. albicans (ATCC 90028) | *Discs (15×3mm) in two groups | Methacrylate | *Adherence assay using CFU counts after 90 min at 37°C | *Contact angle decreased as roughness increased | ||
| *No sig. difference b/w controls and PTBAEMA-modified acrylic regarding Candida count. | ||||||
| Pan et al., 2015[28] | Vertex Rapid Simplified, Vertex-Dental, Zeist, The Netherlands | *Heat-cured | *Polishing to 600 or to 2000 grit silicon carbide | *Contact angle of 2 µL ultrapure water drop (n=18) | *Contact angle sig. reduced after plasma treatment → more hydrophilic | *Ar/O2 plasma treatment improved surface wettability of PMMA without degrading physical properties |
| C. albicans (ATCC 10231) | *36 discs (12×1 mm) in two groups | *± saliva (non-stimulated whole saliva) | *Fungal adherence test after 90 min at 37°C (n=18) using gradient dilution method. | *Sig. reduction in early Candida adhesion for plasma treated | *Ar/O2 plasma treatment sig. reduced early C. albicans adhesion | |
| *n=18 *Rectangular (64×10×3.3 mm) *Control |
*Cold plasma treated or not (98% argon, 2% oxygen, at atmospheric pressure). Discs were treated for 90 s, and rectangular discs were treated for 8.5 min | *Surface roughness (contact) *SEM |
*No sig. difference in surface roughness | |||
| *X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy analysis (XPS) | *XPS revealed fluorine on the surface of plasma treated and reduction of C/O | |||||
| *Optical emission spectroscopy (OES) | *OES revealed abundance of O and OH as active components | |||||
| Qian et al., 2016[29] | Vertex Rapid Simplified, Vertex-Dental | *Heat-cured | *Polished to silicon carbide grit 1000 | *Contact angle (after plasma TX, 48 h, 15 days, 30 days) | *Contact angle decreased after plasma treatment | *Cold plasma treatment resulted in increased hydrophilicity and reduced Candida adhesion |
| BV, Zeist, The Netherlands | *45 discs (12×1 mm) in five groups | *Plasma surface treatment with argon 98%/oxygen 2% for 0, 30, 60, 90, and 120 s | *Surface roughness non-contact (n=9) | *No difference between plasma-treated groups (immediately) | *Prolonged plasma treatment did not improve wettability but affected durability. | |
| C. albicans (ATCC 10231) | *Control *n=9 |
*Candida adhesion by CFU analysis (n=9) | *Contact angle increased after water immersion, 48 h, 15 days | *Reduction in the ratio of C/O, direct relation with treatment time | ||
| *XPS | *No difference b/w all groups after 30 days | *No relation between surface roughness and Candida adhesion | ||||
| *Surface roughness not significantly different b/w all groups | ||||||
| *Lower Candida adhesion for all test groups (90S lowest) | ||||||
| Liu et al., 2017[30] | Lucitone 199; Dentsply Intl Inc. | *Heat-cured | *Smooth and rough surfaces | *Contact angle of sessile drop of distilled water | *Contact angle of coated specimens was higher | *Hydrophobicity increased by TMS coating |
| C. albicans (ATCC 18804) | *60 discs (10×2 mm) in four groups | *Coated with TMS or not coated (trimethylsilane) | *Absorbance of OD (optical density) for Candida | *Absorbance intensity of coated specimens is less than that of controls | *Candida adhesion was decreased by TMS coating | |
| *n=15 *Control |
*MTT assay | *Surface roughness alone did not affect Candida adhesion | ||||
| *SEM and EDS | ||||||
| Türkcan et al., 2018[31] | Meliodent | *Heat-cured | *Polished with silicon carbide paper 600 grit | *Contact angle of 2 µL sessile drop of pure water (n=3) | *Significant decrease in contact angle for 0.25 and 0.75 mol/L MPC → increased wettability | *Surface modification with MPC coating decreased contact angle in 0.25 and 0.75 mol/L MPC groups. |
| Heat Cure, Heraeus Kulzer, Germany | *Disc (6×1.5 mm) in four groups | *Surface coating with MPC (2-methacryloyloxyethyl phosphorylcholine) dissolved in degassed pure water at concentrations of 0.25, 0.5, 0.75 mol/L | *Surface roughness (contact) (n=3) | *MPC coating increased surface roughness, no difference between groups | *Graft polymerization of MPC does not cause a significant change in surface roughness. | |
| C. albicans (ATCC 90028) | *Contact angle and roughness (n=3) | *FTIR spectroscopy with attenuated total reflection (ATR) equipment (n=2) | *MCP increased hydrophilicity (increased water absorption) | *Graft polymerization of MPC decreased C. albicans adhesion onto PMMA surface. | ||
| *Candida adhesion (n=10) | *Candida adhesion assay using CFU (n=10) | *Reduction in Candida adhesion as concentration increased, no difference between 0.5 and 0.75 mol/mL | ||||
| *Control | *SEM (n=2) | |||||
| Hirasawa et al., 2018[32] | Natural resin, Nissin Co., Kyoto, Japan | *Heat-cured | *Polished on both sides to 8000 grit | *XTT reduction assay (n=10) | *Significant difference among all groups for XTT and CFU | *Coating with cross-linkable co-polymers containing SBMAm significantly reduced the initial adhesion of C. albicans |
| C. albicans (JCM2085) | *250 discs (12×2 mm) | *In laboratory-made co-polymer coating plasma cleaning → primer → drying → immersion (10 s) in prepared polymer at concentrations SM0%, SM15%, SM30%, and SM50% → UV (27s) | *CFU (n=10) | *Significant reduction in biofilm for all test groups compared with controls | ||
| *n=10 | *SEM (n=10) | *Surface roughness was less than 0.005 µm for all groups (no difference) | ||||
| *Control | *Surface roughness (non-contact) | *Film thickness was less than 5 µm for all groups—thicker for SM30% than SM0% and SM50% | ||||
| *Film thickness (spectroscopic ellipsometer) | *All coated groups had lower contact angle than control, SM15% had lowest contact angle and highest hydrophilicity | |||||
| *Contact angle of 1 mL purified water drop | ||||||
| Darwish et al., 2019[33] | Lucitone 199 (Dentsply Intl, York, PA, USA) | *Heat-cured | *Polished to 4000 grit silicon carbide paper | *Surface roughness (non-contact) (n=10) | *Surface roughness of coated specimens was less than that of non-coated | *Titanium oxide coating improved wettability, surface smoothness, and increased resistance to microbial adherence. |
| *Rectangular specimens (20×20×1 mm) | *TiO2 coating at 65°C for 3 h to form 30 nm film | *Contact angle using sessile drop of 5 µL deionized water (n=10) | *Contact angle of coated was lower than that of non-coated | |||
| *Roughness and contact angle (n=10) | *Candida adhesion (n=5) after 12 h at 37°C | *Sig. reduction in viable attached Candida cells to coated surfaces | ||||
| *Candida adhesion (n=5) *Control |
*Biofilm formation (n=5) | *Sig. reduction in viable Candida biofilm on coated surfaces | ||||
| Acosta et al., 2019[34] | Lucitone 199 (Dentsply Sirona) and ProBase Hot (Ivoclar Vivadent AG) | *Heat-cured | Acrylic acid or itaconic acid coatings | Surface roughness (non-contact) (n=30) | Affected surface roughness | PMMA acrylic resin base material was superficially modified through the incorporation of carboxylic acid groups by using PAA and PIA coatings that reduced the adherence of C. albicans biofilm by 90%. |
| (ATCC 90028) | *Discs (13–14×4–5 mm) | *Contact angle using sessile drop of 5 µL deionized water (n=30) Candida biofilm adhesion | Increased surface wettability | |||
| *n=30 | PMMA disks modified with PIA or PAA showed a 90% reduction of C. albicans | |||||
| *Control | ||||||
| Fouda et al., 2019 [35] | Major.Base.20 Resin |
*Heat-cured | Nano-diamond at 0.5%, 1.0%, and 1.5% | *Surface roughness (non-contact) (n=30) | Decreased surface roughness at 1% NDs and 0.5% NDs | PMMA/ND composites could be valuable in the prevention of denture stomatitis, which is considered one of the most common clinical problems among removable denture wearers. |
| C. albicans | *Square (10×10×3 mm) | *Contact angle using sessile drop of 5 µL deionized water (n=30) | Decreased C. albicans adhesion | |||
| (ATCC 10231) | *n=30 | C. albicans adhesion | No significant effect was observed on the contact angle. | |||
| *Control | ||||||
| AlBin-Ameer et al., 2020[36] | Major.Base.20, Major Prodotti Dentari SPA, Moncalieri, Italy | *Heat-cured | Nanocoat | *Surface roughness (non-contact) | Nano-coat, Optiglaze, Nano-silica decrease Ra whereas cyanoacrylate increased | Coating of removable prosthesis with nano-coat, Optiglaze, or nanosilica is an effective method to reduce C. albicans adhesion |
| C. albicans | *Rectangular specimens (12×10×2.5 mm) | Optiglaze | *Contact angle using sessile drop of 5 µL deionized water | Nano-coat, Optiglaze, Nano-silica decrease contact angle, whereas cyanoacrylate increased | ||
| (ATCC 10231) | *n=14 | Nano-silica | *C. albicans adhesion | Nano-coat, Optiglaze, Nano-silica decrease C. albicans adhesion, whereas cyanoacrylate increased | ||
| *Control | Cyanoacrylate |
CA = contact angle, SFE = surface free energy, SR = surface roughness, H = hydrophobicity, GS = Google scholar, S = Scopus