Table 3.

Summary of NPs being studied for the development of vaccines.

Nanoparticle	Cells implicated in immune response/tissue affected	Molecules regulated	References
Liposomes composed by DDA. Subcutaneal injection.	Induce the cell-mediated immune response.	Production of IFN-γ and IL-17 in some variants with mycobacterial lipid monomycoloyl glycerol	[162]
Chitosan NPs coated with the Salmonella surface F-protein.	Induction of lymphocyte proliferation.	Increased expression of TLR-4, TLR-2, TGF-β, IL-4, and IFN-γ mRNAs.	[165]
Gold nanorods. Intranasal administration.	Monocytes, macrophages, T cells, NK cells and DCs.	Decrease of TNF-α, GM-CSF, IL-17 and IL-12p70 and increase of IL-9 in comparison with respiratory syncytial virus infected animals	[166]
E2 protein conjugated Gold NPs	Activate CD4+ and CD8+ T cells and balance Th1 and Th2 cellular responses	Increased production of IFN-γ and IL-10.	[167]
Hydrophobic Zwittwerionic Functionalized Gold NPs in presence of LPS	Macrophages. Pro inflammatory profile.	Increase TNF-α.	[168]
Hydrophilic Zwittwerionic Functionalized Gold NPs in presence of LPS	Macrophages. Interactions between macrophages and LPS blocked.	Inhibition of oxidative burst, the release of NETs, ROS and histamine. Suppressed expression of TNF-α.	[168]
Carbon Dots and Ricin toxin binding subunit B. Oral vaccine adjuvant.	Promotion of macrophages proliferation	Increase of TNF-α, IL-6 and NO.	[159]
Silica-based NPs coated with nevirapine (NVP)	Peripheral blood mononuclear cells. NVP coated NPs showed less cytotoxicity than free NVP.		[173], [174]
Pulullan-coated iron oxide NPs conjugated with an antigen from Plasmodium yoelii.	CD4+ T cells reactive to this antigen in a rodent malaria challenge model.	Induce secretion of specific antibodies and IFN-γ	[179]
Polymeric NPs releasing curcumin	Macrophages	Decrease of oxidants (ROS/RNS) produced by the LPS-stimulated Macrophages	[145]