Table 2.

The multifaceted effects of phytocannabinoids and the endocannabinoid system on the respiratory system.

Cannabinoids (generally)	Inhibition of cytokine storms, improvement of lung function, reduction of inflammation, bronchi dilatation, alleviation of symptoms (suffocation, cough).	[3,24,29,30,42]
CBD	Decrease of secretion of inflammatory cytokines, such as IL-6, IL-8, CCL2, and CCL7.	[27]
CBD	Improvement of blood oxygen saturation and the function of lung tissue; decrease in IL-6 levels, as well as neutrophil and lymphocyte infiltration.	[33]
THC	Apoptosis of mononuclear cells infiltrating lungs, downregulation of alveolar macrophages, neutrophils, lymphocytes CD4+, CD8+, NK, NKT cells and proinflammatory cytokines (IFN-γ, IL-1β, IL-2, or TNF-α).	[38,39,40,41]
CB2 receptors	Downregulation of immune cell infiltration in the lungs, as well as levels of IFN-γ, MIP-1α; increased production of IL-10.	[35]
CB1 receptors	Reduction of immune cell influx, cytokine production, and alleviation of lung pathology.	[36]

CBD, cannabidiol; CCL, CC chemokine ligand; THC, Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol; NK, natural killer; NKT, natural killer T; CB, cannabinoid; IFN-γ, interferon γ; MIP−1α, macrophage inflammatory protein 1α.