Table 1. Electrochemical Biosensors Reported for the Detection of COVID-19 Biomarkersa.
| description | sensing method | biomarkers | performance metrics | buffer/medium | reference |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| ECoVSens | electrochemical immunosensor | spike protein domain 1 | 10 fM | spiked saliva | (19) |
| SARS-CoV-2 RapidPlex | electrochemical immunosensor | nucleocapsid protein | 0.1–0.8 μg/mL | serum | (17) |
| 0.5–2μg/mL | saliva | ||||
| S1-IgG | 20–40 μg/mL | serum | |||
| 0.2–0.5 μg/mL | saliva | ||||
| S1-IgM | 20–50 μg/mL | serum | |||
| 0.6–5 μg/mL | saliva | ||||
| CRP | 10–20 μg/mL | serum | |||
| 0.1–0.5 μg/mL | saliva | ||||
| RGO-3D electrodes | electrochemical immunosensor | S1 antibody | 2.8 fM | fetal bovine serum and rabbit serum | (20) |
| RBD antibody | 16.9 fM | ||||
| portable, cell-based biosensor | electrochemical | spike protein | 10 fg to 1 μg/mL, 3 min | cell suspension | (21) |
| 1 fg/mL (LOD) | |||||
| AuNP–mAb | electrochemical combined with colorimetric | spike protein | 48 ng/mL (LOD) | saliva | (23) |
| 1 pg to 10 ng/mL | |||||
| MIL-53 with Au@Pt | electrochemical | nucleocapsid protein | 0.025–50 ng/mL | serum | (24) |
| 8.33 pg/mL (LOD) | |||||
| PET/Au/Ab | electrochemical immunosensor | RBD domain of spike protein | <5 min (96-well plate) | serum | (25) |
| 3D-printed COVID-19 immunosensor | electrochemical immunosensor | RBD domain of spike protein | 1–50 μg/mL | spiked serum | (26) |
| e-PAD:paper-based sensor | electrochemical | IgG and IgM | 1 ng/mL (LOD), 30 min | serum | (18) |
| spike protein | 1–1000 ng/mL | ||||
| 0.11 ng/mL (LOD) | |||||
| MIP-sensor | electrochemical | nucleocapsid protein | 2.22–111 fM | nasopharyngeal swab | (27) |
| 15 fM (LOD) | |||||
| OCETs | electrochemical | IgG | 10 fM to 100 nM, 5 min | serum, saliva | (28) |
| COVID-19 ROS system | electrochemical | reactive oxygen species | 30 s | sputum | (9) |
a
mAb, spike antibody; Au-NP, gold nanoparticles, MIL-53 with Au@Pt, metal–organic framework MIL-53(Al) decorated with gold@platinum; PET/Au/Ab, polyethylene terephthalate/gold/antibody; MIP, molecularly imprinted polymers; OCETs, organic electrochemical transistors.