Table 5.

Summary of BLI VLP–ligand cases discussed in Section 3.2.

Virus	Ligand	Immobilization	Matrix	Key Findings	Platform	Reference
DENV serotypes 1–4 VLPs	Anti-DENV Ab control Abs from vaccinated patient sera	Streptavidin biosensor, biotinylated VLPs	0.1% BSA-PBST	Avidity index (response/koff) increased by vaccination	Octet RED and Octet HTX	Tsuji et al., 2021 [51]
Sulfated Q-β bacteriophage, yields VLP-like particles	Cationic peptide CDK5 (50% Lys)	Streptavidin biosensor, biotinylated CDK5	HBS: 50 mM HEPES 100 mM NaCl pH 7.4 0.02% NaN3; 100 mM sodium phosphate pH 7 buffer	kon = (8 ± 3) × 106 s−1 koff = (5 ± 2) × 10−3 Ms−1 Overall dissociation constant KD ~1 nM	BLItz	Groner et al., 2015 [52]
HIV-1 Gag VLP displaying full-length HER2	HER2-specific phages with Anti-M13-HRP-labelled Ab for signal enhancement and Herceptin-specific mAb	Streptavidin biosensor, biotinylated PEG-Cholesterol anchor on VLPs	PBS; PBST (0.1% Tween-20); PBST + 0.3% skimmed milk powder DAB enhancement in 0.05% DAB-0.015% H2O2 in PBS	Sf9 expression system is robust for displaying full-length receptors on VLPs. BLI demonstrated functionality of displayed HER2.	Octet QK with eight parallel biosensors	Nika et al., 2017 [53]
Hepatitis B core antigen VLPs with C-terminal His6-peptide, disassembled and intact	Anti-His6 peptide antibody and Hepatitis B VLP-specific antibody	Amino-propylsilane (APS) sensors	Loading with 5% BSA in PBS	Binding of antibodies to assembled or disassembled VLPs elucidates the mechanism of increased stability by the His6-peptide.	Octet RED	Schumacher et al., 2018 [54]