Table 1.

Biomaterials from sponges. (Sorted alphabetically according to Class of Biomaterial.)

Class	Producer Species	Class of Biomaterial	Biomaterial	Origin/Structural Component	Possible Applications	References
Demospongiae	Petrosia ficidormis,	Bioceramics	Silicate, Calcium carbonates Silicate/calcium salts	whole body	Support for tissue regeneration	[19]
Demospongiae	Petrosia ficidormis, Chondrosia reniformis and Agelas oroides	Bioceramics	Calcium phosphate (hydroxyapatite)	skeleton	Substitutes for synthetic Bioglass®	[20]
Demospongiae	Petrosia ficidormis	Inorganic polymer	Biosilica	whole body	3D support for osteoblast adhesion and growth	[21]
Demospongiae	Spongia agaricina, Spongia officinalis, Spongia zimocca	Inorganic polymer	Hydroxyapatite	whole body	Bone substitute material	[22]
Demospongiae	Suberites domuncula	Inorganic polymer	Biosilica	skeleton	Stimulates mineralizing activity	[23]
n.a.	n.a.	Inorganic polymer	Silicate	skeleton	Stimulates osteogenesis in vivo	[24]
n.a.	n.a.	Inorganic polymer	Silica/silicatein	skeleton	Regeneration of bone tissue	[25]
n.a.	n.a.	Inorganic polymer	Biosilica/polyphosphate	skeleton	Promotes growth and differentiation of hMSCs *; 3D tissue printing of hMSCs *; Delivery of hMSCs * in fractures	[25]
Demospongiae	Spongia agaricina	Inorganic polymer	Hydroxyapatite	whole body	Bone tissue engineering	[26]
Demospongiae	Spongia agaricina	Inorganic polymer	Hydroxyapatite	whole body	Tissue engineering (bone scaffolds)	[22]
Demospongiae	Ianthella labyrinthus	Polysaccharides	Chitin	skeleton	Scaffolds to culture cardiomyocytes differentiated from human-induced pluripotent stem cells (ipsc-cms); 3D tissue engineering	[27]
Demospongiae	Ianthella flabelliformis	Polysaccharides	Chitin	skeleton	Drug delivery biomaterial	[28]
Demospongiae	Ianthella basta	Polysaccharides	Chitin	skeleton	Tissue engineering and regenerative medicine	[29]
Demospongiae	Pseudoceratina purpurea	Polysaccharides	Chitin	skeleton	Biomedicine	[30]
Demospongiae	Mycale euplectellioides	Polysaccharides	Chitin	skeleton	Biomedicine	[31]
Demospongiae	Acarnus wolffgangi and Echinoclathria gibbosa	Polysaccharides	Chitin	skeleton	Biomedicine	[32]
Demospongiae	Pseudoceratina arabica	Polysaccharides	Chitin	skeleton	Biomedicine	[33]
Demospongiae	Aplysina aerophoba	Polysaccharides	Chitin	whole body	3D microporous chitinous scaffolds for hMSCs * in vitro	[34]
Demospongiae	Ianthella basta	Polysaccharides	Chitin	whole body	Scaffolds for human mesenchymal stromal cells	[35]
Demospongiae	Aplysina cavernicola, Aplysina cauliformis, Aplysina fulva, Aiolochroia crassa, Plysina aerophoba	Polysaccharides	Chitin	whole body	Chitin scaffolds for chondrocytes attachment	[34]
Demospongiae	Aplysina aerophoba	Polysaccharides	Chitin	whole body	Ready-to-use scaffolds for cultivation of cardiomyocytes	[36]
Demospongiae	Spongia lamella, Spongia officinalis Hippospongia communis Sarcotragus spinosulus	Polysaccharides/Proteins	Collagen/ proteoglycan	skeletons	Bio-based dressing for topical drug delivery	[16]
Demospongiae	Aplysina archeri	Polysaccharides	Chitin	skeletal fibres	Ready-to-use 3D chitin scaffolds	[37]
Demospongiae	Aplysina fulva Aplysina aerophoba Ianthella basta	Polysaccharides	Chitin	skeletons	Directed differentiation of human adipose tissue-derived hMSCs * within chitin-based skeletons	[38]
Demospongiae	Chondrosia reniformis	Proteins	Collagen	whole body	Support and promote the migration, adhesion, and growth of epithelial cells	[39]
Demospongiae	Biemna fortis	Proteins	Collagen	whole body	Bone repair and bone augmentation	[40]
Demospongiae	Chondrosia reniformis	Proteins	Collagen	whole body	Sponge collagenous membranes	[41]
Demospongiae	Callyspongiidae	Proteins	Collagen	skeletons	Scaffold for use in bone tissue engineering	[42]
Demospongiae	Ircinia fusca	Proteins	Collagen	whole body	Composite scaffolds (marine collagen + chitosan + hydroxyapatite) for matrix-based bone repair and bone augmentation	[43]
Demospongiae	Aplysina fulva	Proteins	Spongin	whole body	Spongin-enriched biosilicate scaffolds to support bone formation	[44]

* Human mesenchymal stem cells (hMSCs).