Table 2.

Immunomodulatory effects of antimicrobials.

Antimicrobial Class	Drug	Immunopharmacological Effect	Reference(s)
Tetracyclines	Tigecycline, minocycline	Potentiate the innate immune response and augment resolution of inflammation	[50]
Macrolides	Azithromycin	Reduce the production of IL-12, resulting in enhanced Th2 response	[51]
Oxazolidinones	Linezolid	Suppress synthesis of proinflammatory cytokines, such as interleukin-1β (IL-1β), IL-6, IL-8, interferon-γ (IFN-γ), and tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α)	[52,53,54]
Lincosamides	Clindamycin	Suppress the release of inflammatory cytokines such as TNF-α and IL-1β and enhance the phagocytosis of microorganisms by host cells	[55,56]
Streptogramins	Quinupristin-dalfopristin	Decrease the concentration of pro-inflammatory cell wall components (lipoteichoic acid and teichoic acid) and the activity of TNF	[57]
Phenicols	Chloramphenicol	Elevate the anti-inflammatory IL-10 levels	[58]
Polyenes	Amphotericin B	Activate the host’s innate immunity and augment the IL-1β-induced inducible nitric-oxide synthase (iNOS) expression and the production of nitric oxide (NO)	[59]
Allylamines	Terbinafine	Stimulate proinflammatory cytokines	[60]
Azoles	Fluconazole, voriconazole	Enhance microbicidal activity of monocytes, macrophages, and neutrophils	[61,62]