Table 3.

Examples of the most common incorporation methods of bioactive ingredients within the edible food matrix and coatings.

Incorporation Method within Edible Matrix	Advantages	Disadvantages	Reference
Emulsions and nanoemulsions	-The possibility of incorporation of polar, non-polar, and amphiphilic compounds into the same delivery system -Different rheological ranges (from viscous liquids to plastic) -Direct use in “wet” state or drying to powders -Emulsions can be made entirely from food-grade ingredients (such as water, oil, surfactants, phospholipids, proteins, and polysaccharides) -Easy processing (mixing and homogenising)	-Susceptible to physical instability -Limited protection and controlled release due to small droplet size -Limited number of emulsifiers	[114]
Liposomes	-High bioavailability and absorption compared to other oral forms of supplementation -Increased intracellular delivery -Ability to deliver both hydrophilic and hydrophobic compounds simultaneously -Cost effective due to high bioavailability	-High industrial cost and scale-up problems -Poor stability under the complex environmental conditions -Potential difficulties in finding suitable food-grade substances -Manufacturing-related issues such as non-reproducibility from batch to batch, lack of effective sterilization methods	[115,116,117]
Solid lipid nanoparticles	-Increased stability and prolonged release -Slowing down the diffusion of pro-oxidants -Improvement of bioavailability	-Limited loading capacity for hydrophilic compounds -Gelation of lipid dispersions	[118]
Nanofibers	-Non-mechanical engineering → structural advantages: ultrafine structures, high porosity, high surface-to-volume ratio, tailored morphology -Nanofibrils can adsorb at the oil/water interface and form a coating around the oil droplets -Prolonged release time of the active ingredients -Non-thermal approach/protection against thermal degradation and possibility of encapsulation of thermosensitive compounds -High efficiency of incorporated bioactives -Reduced amount of organic solvents -Sustainability and environmentally-friendly	-Low productivity -So far, no data available on the long-term stability of compounds produced -Electrospinning is currently only used on a laboratory scale -Potential environmental and health risks of nanocomponents still quite unexplored	[102,119]
Inclusion complex	-Protection of lipophilic food ingredients from oxidation and degradation by light, heat -Improved thermal stability -Improved bioaccessibility -Improved water solubility of hydrophobic compounds -Ability to mask the bad taste of certain substances → reduction of organoleptic effects of volatile compounds -RH controlled release	-For polymers used in the food industry, the durability has not been studied so far -Polymer preparation usually does not follow the concept of green chemistry and new preparation methods should be developed	[120]
Complex coacervates	-Higher thermal degradation temperatures than their individual biopolymers -High payload -Process at low temperature -Reduced evaporation losses -Compatibility to control the release of active ingredients -Improvement of chemical stability of sensitive compounds	-The high cost of the particle isolation processe and the complexity of the technique should be considered	[121,122,123]