Table 3.
Promising strategies to eliminate ARBs and ARGs in water treatment plants and drinking water distribution systems.
| Strategy | Result | Ref |
|---|---|---|
| Nanotechnology (nanoparticles, nanocomposites, nanofibers) | ||
| GNICPs (Ginkgo biloba L. modified iron-cobalt NPs) |
↓ bacterial abundance (↓16S rRNA) ↓ ARGs: blaTEM, sul1, qnrA, acrA-02, mexB, tetM-01, ermB, mefA, ereA ↓MGEs: intI1, intI3, tnp-04, and TP614 Altered microbial community composition |
[147] |
| Cd2+ and Fe2O3 NPs | ↑ conjugative transfer frequencies ↑ cell membrane permeability ↑ antioxidant enzymes (SOD, CAT) ↑ mRNA expression of trfAp and trfBp |
[152] |
| Metallic (Cu, Zn, CuO, ZnO) NPs | ↓ bacterial growth ↓ ARGs: sul1, aadA1 and MGE: intl1 ↑ ROS production ↑ bacterial cell membrane permeability |
[143] |
| nTiO2 NPs | Adsorption of tetM-plasmid (0.06/min and 4.29 mg/g) | [144] |
| nZVI NPs | Adsorption of tetM-plasmid (0.05/min and 2.15 mg/g) ARGs fragmentation |
|
| CuO NPs (with humic acid) | ↓ absolute ARGs: macB, mexF and MGE: intl1 ↓ absolute metallic-resistance genes: copA, cusA Modulation of EPS production |
[145] |
| CNTs/AG/Ti electrode (Carbon nanotubes/agarose/titanium) |
↑ ROS production bacterial cell membrane damage ↓ ampicilin-resistant E. coli (100%, 1.8.V, 30 min) blaTEM-1 degradation (100%, 2 V (PBS), 30 min) |
[151] |
| Water-resistant cellulose foam paper coated with CuO, ZnO, or Ag2O NPs | Enhanced cellulose filter paper antibacterial activity against E. coli, P. aeruginosa, Bacillus Subtilis, and Bacillus cereus Ag2O NPs produced the highest antibacterial activity |
[148] |
| Melamine foams with Ag NPs | Antibacterial activity against E. coli | [149] |
| PVDF membrane functionalized with TiO2 NPs | 99.9% retention of tetracycline, chloramphenicol, and sulfadiazine-resistant bacteria ↓ ARGs: floR (97.8%), sul1 (99.5%), sul2 (98.8%), intI1 (93.7%), tetC (20.6%), tetW (27.2%), tetQ (2.0%) Inhibition of HGT |
[150] |
| Chitosan/biochar-nanosilver (C-Ag) composite | Sustainable antibacterial activity against E. coli (>50 days) Good reusability |
[153] |
| Carbon-based copper nanocomposites | ↓ absolute ARGs and MGEs ↓ HGT mediated by plasmids and MGEs |
[142] |
| SWNTs-PAN/TPU/PANI composite electrospun nanofiber membrane | Complete removal of S. aureus and E. coli Good durability and stability over various cycles |
[154] |
| k-carrageenan/Ag NPs film | Antimicrobial activity against Vibrio cholerae, Candida albicans, P. aeruginosa, E. coli, K. pneumoniae, and Bacillus cereus Inhibition of bacteria growth |
[146] |
| Microalgae | ||
| Chlorella micrococcus (photo-sequencing batch reactor) | ↓ 78% ARG absolute abundance ↓ Rhodocyclaceae and Burkholderiaceae bacteria families |
[119] |
| Microalgae-bacteria consortium | ↓ ARGs: blaTEM (72%) and ermB (97%) absolute abundance | [124] |
| ↑ ARG: sul1 | [125] | |
ARG—antibiotic resistance gene; CAT—catalase; EPS—extracellular polymeric substances; HGT—horizontal gene transference; NPs—nanoparticles; MGE—mobile genetic element; PRB—permeable reactive barrier; ROS—reactive oxygen species; SOD—superoxide dismutase; ZVI—zero-valent iron; ↓—decrease; and ↑—increase.