Table 1.

Use of GNP based nanovaccine against viral pathogens.

SN	Antigen Conjugated with AuNP	GNP/Adjuvant	Immunization Mechanism	Immune Response	Ref.
1	Surface antigens spike glycoprotein of avian coronavirus	Virus-like particles (VLP) by incubating the antigen with 100 nm AuNPs	Dose: Single, 10 μg Mode: Intramuscularly Animals: BALB/C mice and specific pathogen-free chickens	Showed increased antigen delivery to lymphoid organs. An enhanced response of spleen T cells. Higher antibody titers. A reduction in symptoms of infection.(Comparative study with a commercial vaccine also showed that the AuNP conjugate provided better protection against the virus.)	[109]
2	Surface antigens gastroenteritis virus	Conjugated with 15 nm AuNPs	Guinea pigs twice subcutaneously with 125 μg, mice once intraperitoneally with 70 μg, and rabbits three times subcutaneously with 220 μg	Increased the level of IL-6, IFN-γ, IL-1β in the blood plasma. Higher respiratory activity of peritoneal macrophages and spleen lymphocytes. Activation of humoral immunity; increase in the number of follicles in the spleen.	[84,110]
3	Glycoprotein antigen of respiratory syncytial virus	Nanorods	Human cell treatment in vitro	Human dendritic cells induced an immune activation (proliferation and expansion) of primary T cells.	[111]
4	Glycoprotein isolated from fixed rabies virus, strain Moscow 3253	Conjugated with 15 nm AuNPs	Animal: Mice Mode: Intraperitoneally Dose: 25 μg in four booster doses, 50 μg was used	Develop highly specific neutralizing antibodies against the virus.	[112]
5	Surface glycoprotein (gB) of human cytomegalovirus (CMV, a herpes virus)	Conjugated with AuNP	In vitro	Viral replication blocked. Virus-induced cytopathogenic effects blocked. Virus spread in cell culture decreased without generating cytotoxicity. Cells gained resistance to CMV infection post-treatment.	[113]
6	West Nile fever virus	Multiple sizes and shapes of AuNPs used: 20 and 40 nm nanospheres, 40 × 20 nm nanorods, and 40 × 40 × 40 nm nanocubes	Animal: Mice Mode: Intraperitoneally Dose: 100 μg No. of doses: 2	40 nm nanospheres induced the highest level of specific antibodies. The dendritic cells and macrophages absorbed larger numbers of nanorods. IL-1β and IL-18 synthesis increased while using nanorods, while nanospheres and nanocubes resulted in higher synthesis of TNFα, IL6, IL12, and granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor.	[72]
7	Capsid (Cap) protein from pathogenic porcine circovirus	Conjugated with 23 nm GNPs	In vitro and mice immunized twice subcutaneously	Increase in Cap protein phagocytosis. High production of virus-neutralizing antibodies.(Similar results were obtained with classical swine fever virus antigen.)	[114]