Properties of CNDs prepared from various source materials.

Name	Source	Yield (%)	PL	QYb		Particle sizec	Atomic compositiond (%)
			Exa (nm)	Em (nm)	(%)	(nm)	C	O	N
Carbonized, water-extracted at 80 °C, 2 h, pH 12
CND-Bamboo I	Bamboo	2.27	310	420	9.63	4.0 ± 0.3	52.8	47.2	<0.1
CND-Wood	Wood	2.01	310	425	12.34	3.7 ± 0.4	52.4	47.6	<0.1
CND-Bamboo II	Bamboo	2.91	310	425	0.90	4.4 ± 0.7	66.0	34.0	<0.1
Hydrothermal, 120 °C, 3 h, pH 12
CND-MO	Mahonia oiwakensis Hayata	17.64	390	465	10.86	3.5 ± 0.9	66.9	28.0	5.1
CND-PA	Pineapple	9.36	330	420	0.35	2.7 ± 0.3	67.2	25.9	6.9
CND-PB	Pineapple	22.47	330	390	0.71	3.3 ± 0.8	63.7	24.0	12.3

^aDetermined through fluorescence spectroscopy, using excitation wavelengths that provided relatively high intensity emissions.

^bCalculated from UV-Vis absorption and integrated fluorescence spectra, according to the equation of relative fluorescence QY.

^cDetermined through dynamic light scattering of average particle size.

^dDetermined through XPS analysis.