Table 1.
Potential mechanisms of action of selected biomolecules.
| Biomolecules | Localization | Mechanism of the Action |
|---|---|---|
| CMPF | Liver, pancreas | stimulates oxidative stress, acts on mitochondrial functions and dysregulates glucose-induced ATP accumulation [49] |
| ANGPTL-8 | Adipose tissue, liver, vascular and hematopoietic systems | supporting role in stimulating proliferation and increasing pancreatic beta cell mass, improves glucose tolerance in insulin resistance, likely by increasing insulin secretion [64,67], |
| Nesfatin-1 | Pancreas, duodenum, adipose tissue, peripheral and central nervous system (arcuate, paraventricular nuclei and nucleus of the solitary tract), skeletal muscles, heart, kidneys, liver, skin, lungs, articular cartilage | stimulates pre-proinsulin mRNA expression and increases glucose-induced insulin release [78], inhibits glucagon secretion [78], antihyperglycemic effects in animal studies [81] |
| Afamin | Liver, placenta, ovarian follicular, seminal fluids, cerebrospinal fluids, plasma | antiapoptotic and antioxidant qualities [90,91], upregulation of oxidative stress increases concentrations of afamin [86,90] |
| Adropin | Lungs, liver, cardiovascular system, adipose tissue, kidneys, pancreas, brain, cerebellum, small intestine, endothelial cells | regulates cellular energy metabolism and anti-inflammatory processes (IL-10↑, TGFβ↑, IL-12↓, TNFα↓), takes part in anti-oxidative stress [95,96] |
| Fetuin-A | Skeletal muscles, adipose tissue, cardiovascular system, liver | a ligand for toll-like receptor 4 (TLR-4), through which lipids induce insulin resistance, induce inflammatory signaling [101] |
| Zonulin | Digestive system, liver, heart, brain, adipose tissue, lungs, kidneys, skin, immune cells | physiological modulator of intercellular tight junctions (TJs) between intestinal epithelial cells [106] |
| SFRPs | Heart, adipose tissue, pancreas, skeletal muscles, liver, aorta, endometrium, gallbladder, kidneys, prostate, testis, urinary bladder, ovary, esophagus, skin, small intestine, colon, appendix, spleen, bone marrow, duodenum, adrenal | extracellular signaling ligands and Wnt signaling pathway antagonistic inhibitors [113,114,115], take part in the adipogenesis [117,118,119], adipocyte differentiation [120,121,122], may worsen insulin secretion by acting on islet cells through β-catenin, TCF4, CyclinD [123], sensitizing skeletal muscle cells to insulin. By the Wnt/Ca2+ signaling pathway, enhance intracellular Ca2+ and protein kinase C, calmodulin kinase II is activated [122,124,125,126], steer hypothalamic insulin signaling pathway, inhibits N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor and inhibits the secretion of hepatic glucose [140] |
| Amylin | Pancreatic β-cells | plays a significant role in regulation of glucose metabolism [147], controls gastric emptying, suppression of glucagon release and regulation of satiety [148,149], penetrates cell membranes [152], resulting in an imbalance of intracellular ions, formation of reactive oxidant species, membrane damage and loss of β-cells [150,151] |