Table 1.

Biomarkers identifying responders and non-responders to immunotherapies in T1D patients.

Biomarker	Drug	Patients Stage	Associated Phenotype	Reference
ICOS and PD-1 expression on T follicular helper	abatacept	New-onset T1D	Predict decreased response to treatment	[97]
B-cell-related genes	abatacept	New-onset T1D	Increased in non-responders	[50]
Neutrophil-related genes	abatacept	New-onset T1D	Increased in responders	[50]
TIGIT and KLRG1 on CD8+ T cells	alefacept	New-onset T1D	Increased in responders	[99]
TIGIT and KLRG1 on CD8+ T cells	teplizumab	New-onset T1D	Increased in responders	[100,101]
Low innate inflammatory signature	abatacept	New-onset T1D	Greater responders	[98]
HLADR4+ HLA-DR3−	teplizumab	At risk, ≥2 aAbs	Increased in responders	[15]
ZnT8 autoantibodies	teplizumab	At risk, ≥2 aAbs	Decreased in responders	[15]
PD-1 expression on CD4+ and CD8+ T cells	teplizumab	New-onset T1D (8 weeks)	Increased in responders	[62,63]
BCR signaling	rituximab	Established T1D	Increased in responders	[102]
Heterogenous T-cell signature	rituximab	New-onset T1D	Decreased efficacy	[103]

Abbreviations: T1D, type 1 diabetes, HLA, human leukocyte antigen; aAbs, autoantibodies; BCR, B-cell receptor.