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. 2022 Feb 18;9(12):2103875. doi: 10.1002/advs.202103875

Table 4.

3D printed NGCs for never regeneration

Type Fabrication method Biomaterials and cell In vitro/in vivo Study period Study result Reference
Single lumen linear NGCs 3D printed molds Gelatin cryogel, NIH‐3T3 cells, small molecule substance Transected sciatic nerve in rat 3 months NGCs significantly benefitted the recovery of transected peripheral nerve [ 51 ]
3D printed molds EHS, GelMA 10 ‐mm sciatic nerve gap in rat 4 months NGCs could promote the repair of peripheral nerve [ 44 ]
Layer‐by‐layer depositing, direct soaking dECM, PCL, PDA Cell behaviors and neuronal differentiation were assessed in vitro − NGCs could promote regeneration of nerve [ 58 ]
Assembling spheroids for constructing NGCs NHDF 10 ‐mm nerve gap in rat 8 weeks NGCs could enhance peripheral nerve regeneration [ 84 ]
Assembling spheroids for constructing NGCs Canine dermal fibroblasts, silicon tube 5 ‐mm ulnar nerve gap in dog 10 weeks NGCs were effective for nerve regeneration [ 50 ]
Stereolithography and coaxial electrospraying techniques PC‐12 neural cells, PEG, PEGDA, Irgacure 819 Cell behaviors and neuronal differentiation were assessed in vitro − 3D printed NGCs improved cell function [ 52 ]
Assembling spheroids for constructing NGCs NHDF, silicone tube 5‐mm nerve gap in rat 8 weeks 3D NGCs promoted nerve regeneration [ 119 ]
Assembling spheroids for constructing NGCs G‐MSCs, type I collagen gel 5‐mm nerve gap in rat 12 weeks NGCs promised potential application for repair and regeneration of peripheral nerve defects [ 11l ]
Multiple lumen linear NGCs DLP‐based rapid continuous 3D printing PDMS, GelMA, PEGDA, LAP 4‐mm nerve gap in rat 11 weeks Rats showed promising recovery of motor function and sensation [ 62c ]
Micro‐MRI technique, a single nozzle melt 3D printer − − − This method could provide a template for the design of downstream nerve graft model [ 1a ]
Mandrel adhesion method PCL, porous collagen‐based beads (CultiSphers) Cell behaviors were assessed in vitro − 3D printed NGCs improved cell function [ 63 ]
Bifurcated 3D printed NGCs Layer‐by‐layer 3D printing Polyethylene‐like material 3 ‐mm sciatic nerve gap before trifurcation in rat 12 weeks 3D printed NGCs with interposed autograft could prevent neuroma formation [ 72 ]
An imaging‐coupled 3D printing methodology Silicone, NGF, GDNF, gelatin methacrylate hydrogel 10 ‐mm complex nerve gap in rat 3 months The platform had a significant impact on both the fundamental understanding of complex nerve injuries [ 27a ]
Multichannel NGCs and bifurcating NGCs Layer‐by‐layer fabrication procedure Sodium hyaluronate, I2959, HAbp, HA, SCs Cell behaviors were assessed in vitro − 3D printed NGCs improved cell function [ 66 ]
Single lumen NGCs, multichannel NGCs, and bifurcating NGCs 3D printed molds CryoGelMA gel, A‐MSC 10 ‐mm sciatic nerve gap in rat 16 weeks NGCs supported the re‐innervation across 10 ‐mm sciatic nerve gaps [ 129a ]
Irregular 3D printed NGCs A microfluidic approach, extrusion‐based bioprinting Gelatin, MA, chitosan, I2959 Cell behaviors were assessed in vitro − 3D printed NGCs improved cell function [ 75 ]
EHD‐jet 3D printing PCL, PAA Cell behaviors were assessed in vitro − 3D printed NGCs improved cell function [ 76 ]
An extrusion‐based type of 3D printing PDL, RGD, PHH Cell behaviors were assessed in vitro − 3D printed NGCs improved cell function [ 77 ]
EHD‐jetting 3D printing PCL, glacial acetic acid Cell behaviors were assessed in vitro − 3D printed NGCs improved cell function [ 19 ]
Layer‐by‐layer fabrication procedure SCs, alginate, HA, fibrinogen, thrombin TISSEEL VHSD kits Cell behaviors were assessed in vitro − 3D printed NGCs directed the extension of dorsal root ganglion neurites [ 78 ]
Extrusion‐based bioprinting Gelatin/alginate hydrogel, SCs Cell behaviors were assessed in vitro 4 weeks NGCs improved cell adhesion and related factor expression [ 87 ]
Multifunctional 3D printed NGCs A novel electrohydrodynamic jet 3D printing PCL, PPy Cell behaviors were assessed in vitro − PPy‐based conductive scaffolds had the potential for peripheral neuronal regeneration [ 91 ]
DLP GelMA hydrogels, MPEG‐PCL nanoparticles, LAP, SCs, HUVECs 5‐mm sciatic nerve gap in rat 3 months NGCs induced the recovery of sciatic nerve injuries in vivo [ 93 ]
Fused deposition modeling 3D printing PC fiber, PLO, DWCNTs, NSCs Cell behaviors were assessed in vitro − 3D printed NGCs improved cell function [ 96 ]
EHD‐jet 3D printing rGO, PCL, PC12 cells Cell behaviors were assessed in vitro − NGCs could support the differentiation of PC12 cells. [ 101 ]
Layer‐by‐layer casting Graphene, PCL, PDA, RGD 15‐mm nerve gap in rat 18 weeks NGCs promoted successful axonal regrowth and remyelination [ 28b ]
Stereolithography PCL, NGF, camphorquinone, ethyl 4‐dimethyl aminobenzoate 15 ‐mm critical size sciatic nerve defect in rat 16 weeks 3D printed NGCs could lead to a better functional regenerative outcome [ 62b ]
DLP based continuous 3D printing process Collagenase I, GelMA, LAP, SCs, PC12 cells 10‐mm sciatic nerve gap in rat 3 months NGCs could efficiently repair the injured nerves [ 118 ]

Abbreviations: 3D, three‐dimensional; A‐MSC, adipose‐derived mesenchymal stem cell; CryoGelMA, cryopolymerized gelatin methacryloyl; dECM, decellularized extracellular matrix; DLP, digital light processing; DWCNT, double‐walled carbon nanotube; EHD, electrohydrodynamic; EHS, Engelbreth‐Holm‐Swarm; GDNF, glial cell line‐derived neurotrophic factor; GelMA, gelatin methacryloyl; G‐MSC, gingiva‐derived mesenchymal stem cell; HA, hyaluronic acid; HAbp, HA‐binding protein; HUVEC, human umbilical vein endothelial cell; I2959, irgacure 2959; LAP, lithium phenyl‐2,4,6‐trimethyl‐benzoylphosphinate; MA, methacrylic anhydride; micro‐MRI, micro‐magnetic resonance imaging; NGC, nerve guide conduit; NGF, nerve growth factor; NHDF, normal human dermal fibroblast; NIH‐3T3 cell, mouse embryonic cell; NSC, neural stem cell; PAA, poly(acrylic acid); PC, polycarbonate; PCL, poly(ε‐caprolactone); PDA, polydopamine; PDL, poly(D‐lysine); PDMS, polydimethylsiloxane; PEG, poly(ethylene glycol); PEGDA, poly(ethylene glycol) diacrylate; PHH, PHEMA hydrogel; PLO, poly(ʟ‐ornithine); PPy, polypyrrole; RGD, arginine‐glycine‐aspartic acid; rGO, reduced graphene oxide; SC, Schwann cell.